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THE CHILD AND HIS 
SPELLING 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/childhisspellingOOcook 



THE CHILD AND 
HIS SPELLING 



AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PSYCHOLOGY 

OF SPELLING, INDIVIDUAL AND SEX DIFFERENCES IN SPELLING 

ABILITIES AND NEEDS. THE CHARACTER AND RANGE OF 

THE SPELLING VOCABULARY, AND THE PRACTICAL 

PROBLEMS OF TEACHING SPELLING 



By 

W. A. COOK 

Of the University of Colorado 
and 

M. V. O'SHEA 

Of the University of Wisconsin 



CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH SERIES 
Edited by M. V. O'SHEA 



INDIANAPOLIS 

THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 



Copyright 1914 
The Bobbs-Merrill Company 



>.. 



& 



■: 



PRESS OF 
BRAUNWORTH &. CO 
BOOKBINDERS AND PRINTERS 
BROOKLYN, N 



JUL 22 1914 ' 

©CI.A374885 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PART I 

Learning to Spell 

chapter page 

I Introduction . 1 

Present-day interest in spelling — Conflicting 
opinions and counsel — The reason for differences 
of opinion — Why pupils find spelling hard and 
uninteresting — The purpose and scope of the 
present volume — The spelling vocabulary. 

II Rules for Spelling 10 

Present opinion and practise — Material used 
for the test — The persons tested — Conscious ver- 
sus unconscious functioning of a rule — Rule on 
ie-ei, final e, final y, final consonant, final ie — The 
function of the ie-ei rule — Value of rule on final 
e — Value of rule on final y — Value of rule for 
final consonant — Value of rule for final ie — Stu- 
dents' attitude toward rules. 

III Sources and Causes of Errors 23 

Need of determining causes of errors — Preva- 
lence of chance errors — Slips of the pen — Treat- 
ment of lapses — Is there a critical point in a 
word? — Crucial points often not covered by 
rules — Mispronunciation as a cause of error — 
Analogies in spelling — Obscure or elided vow- 
els — Doubling letters — Types of letters — Syllabi- 
cation — Directing attention to the crucial point 
in each word. 

IV The Life History of Certain Spellings . . 48 

Words assigned in experiments — Methods of 
presentation and study — Methods of recitation — 
Methods of correction — Capacity for improve- 
ment — Learning and retaining — Persistence of 
errors — An apparent exception to the rule of per- 
sistence — Why errors persist — The life history 
of certain words — Errors eliminated one at a 
time-^Four stages in word mastery — When is a 
word mastered? 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

V Column Versus Contextual Spelling ... 74 

Material and subjects — Difficulties of the 
plan — Two methods of measuring loss by trans- 
fer — The conventional conclusion — Genuine dy- 
namic spelling — Dispersion of attention — Rela- 
tive automatism in spelling — Automatic execution 
of the literal elements — Oral spelling first — Auto- 
matic control of larger units — Universality of 
the principle — Lack of transfer unavoidable — 
Conclusion. 

VI Methods of Presentation 94 

Variance of opinions — Plan of the work — 
Four types of presentation — Effectiveness of the 
training — Comparison of methods — Processes in 
graphic and oral spelling — Advantages of each 
method — Showing a pupil his error. 

VII Spelling Efficiency and Composition . . . 104 

Plan of the work — The data gathered — Or- 
ganization of ideas — The spelling conscience — At- 
tention to technique — Rapidity of writing — The 
results summarized. 

VIII Some Special Factors in Spelling . . . 112 

Learning to read in relation to learning to 
spell — Fear of making errors — Seeing and hear- 
ing mistakes — Can one reason out a spelling? — 
Auditory and visual types — No pure types — Dom- 
inant type of error — Syllabication as an aid — 
Traits that make good spellers. 

PART II 
The Spelling Vocabulary 

IX Popular Views of Spelling Needs .... 125 

Present theory and practise — Purpose of spell- 
ing — Immediate versus ultimate values in spell- 
ing — Pruning word lists — Reasons for opposition 
to curtailment of vocabulary. 

X Determining the Written Vocabulary of Typi- 

cal Americans ........ 135 

An experimental study of spelling needs — 
Ayres' study of spelling vocabularies — How to 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

find the needs of the "common people" — Declin- 
ing importance of spelling — No imminent danger 
of hampering the child. 

XI Sources and Character of Data .... 144 

Sources of data — No consideration of test 
lists — Rules of procedure — The arrangement of 
words. 

XII Word Lists Derived from Correspondence . . 156 

The method of classifying data — Words used 
by all the correspondents — Words used by a ma- 
jority of the correspondents — Words used by less 
than a majority of the correspondents — Proper 
names in the correspondence — Separate tabula- 
tion of foreign terms. 

XIII Spelling Texts and Spelling Needs . . . 225 

Vocabularies of spelling-books — Relation of 
vocabularies of spellers and correspondents — 
Limitations of any speller — Individual writing 
vocabularies — Vocabularies in family and other 
correspondence — Sex differences in spelling vo- 
cabulary — Relation of time economy to spelling 
needs — The words that do the work. 

XIV R£sum£ and Conclusions 246 

Appendix — Words Used Spontaneously by Pupils . 257 

References for Further Reading ..... 267 

Index ...... w ... ... .. „ .. , 275 



THE CHILD AND HIS 
SPELLING 



PART I 
LEARNING TO SPELL 



THE CHILD AND HIS 
SPELLING 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

IF one may judge by what one reads in the news- 
papers and magazines, the subject in the schools 
of chief interest to the layman to-day is spelling. 
Present-day inter- There is evidently a wide-spread 
est in spelling belief that graduates of the ele- 
mentary schools can not spell so well now as they 
did in earlier times. A number of investigators have 
attempted to show that this belief is not founded 
on fact, but the newspapers are incessantly repeat- 
ing the statement that we are constantly losing 
ground in spelling efficiency. Various explanations 
are offered for this unhappy condition of affairs; 
but the reason most frequently given is that the 
energy of pupils is being dissipated by the study of 
"fads," and that they are not in consequence being 
drilled sufficiently in spelling. On the other hand, 
one may read statements to the effect that it does 



2 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

not make much difference whether pupils are trained 
in spelling or not, because "good spellers are born, 
and not made.' , There seems to be a settled con- 
viction in the minds of some persons that certain 
types of pupils never can learn to spell well, be- 
cause they do not possess the particular intellectual 
"powers" required for success in this undertaking. 
Meanwhile every one seems to feel competent to 
give advice respecting the best methods of teaching 
Conflicting opin- this study. It is apparently re- 
ions and counsel garded by most laymen and some 
educational people as a simple subject, so that any 
sensible person can formulate sound opinions relat- 
ing to the way in which pupils may be got to learn 
it most readily and effectively. In consequence of 
this attitude on the part of all sorts of people, with- 
in and without the schools, teachers are much con- 
fused because of the variety of counsel which is 
being given them. They are advised now by this 
person to give more attention in their daily pro- 
grams to oral spelling; while another person tells 
them they ought to abandon oral spelling altogether, 
and concentrate wholly upon written work. Still 
another person will advise that the text-book should 
be discarded altogether, and that lists of words for 
spelling should be taken from all the studies being 
pursued by the pupil. There are those who main- 
tain that if the spelling in the regular written ex- 
ercises be properly looked after, it will not be nec- 
essary to have any special period devoted solely to 



INTRODUCTION 3 

drill in spelling. And so one might go on at length 
along this line, giving evidence showing that there 
appears to be slight agreement among laymen or 
teachers respecting either the causes of our deficien- 
cies in spelling, or the most efficient methods of 
remedying them. 

The chief reason why there is this disagreement 
in regard to spelling is because we are dealing with 
The reason for an extremely complex subject, 
differences of though it has been generally 

opinion treated as if it were exceedingly 

simple; and we have not thought it necessary to 
investigate it thoroughly in order to discover the 
factors which are operating to determine success 
or failure in the way it is presented in the schools. 
The layman can not, of course, give the time re- 
quired for an analysis of this subject. He thinks 
something is wrong; he feels pupils can not spell 
as well as they ought to; and he concludes that 
they should be subjected to more rigorous drill in 
the school. The layman's remedy for all short- 
comings of this sort is to give the pupil more of 
the thing in which he is defective — "drill on it 
harder," he says. It is his conception that when a 
thing is not properly learned so that it can be 
used, it is because there has not been enough of 
time spent on it. And the layman is not the only 
one who can not take the time to look into the 
mysteries of these things. The busy teacher, too, 
is so overcrowded that he can not analyze these 



4 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

problems, because he must pass rapidly from one 
task to another during the entire day. He often 
realizes that the spelling problem is complicated, 
that there are various factors cooperating to pro- 
duce the results that concern us, and that the situa- 
tion should be examined more critically than it ever 
has been; and yet he is almost if not quite helpless 
to do anything about it. He must go ahead and 
teach the day's lesson the best he can, according 
to the light that has come to him from one source 
or another — mainly the traditional belief in the way 
the child learns. In this respect it is no more 
different with spelling than it is with all the other 
subjects in the program. 

At the same time, some attempts have been made 
to apply careful analytic methods to the problems 

Why pupils find of s P ellin g in order to discover, if 
spelling hard and possible, the reasons why pupils 
do not learn it more accurately 
and readily. Recently much has been said about 
the unphonetic character of our words, which makes 
it practically impossible for a child to learn them 
without supreme effort of memory. The men who 
have been delving into this matter have been so 
impressed with the difficulty of learning to spell 
English words that they have determined to revise 
many of them with a view to reducing them, as 
far as possible, to a phonetic basis. But no matter 
how sympathetic we may be toward this spelling- 
reform, we must appreciate, nevertheless, that for 



INTRODUCTION 5 

many years to come children will have to be taught 
to spell English words in their present forms, with 
perhaps a dozen or two exceptions. In this con- 
nection, it may be worth while to note that there 
probably is no study in the curriculum which is 
less attractive to pupils than spelling as it is ordi- 
narily taught. In the course of the investigation 
described in this volume, inquiry was frequently 
made of teachers regarding the interest which their 
pupils took in spelling, and the answer was always 
the same in effect — children almost hate their spell- 
ing, except when they can make it an occasion for 
a contest of some sort, as in "spelling down." There 
seems to be little if anything about the memorizing 
by main force of the form of a word which appeals 
to the typical pupil anywhere in the schools. 

With a view to contributing something to the so- 
lution of these various problems, the authors of this 

«,, , volume have conducted a series of 

The purpose and 

scope of the pres- investigations extending over a 
ent volume considerable period of time. The 

problems which have been studied are those which 
the teacher encounters in his every-day work in the 
class room. The method of investigation has in- 
cluded, first, an examination of the spelling history 
and abilities of a large number of pupils in a rather 
general way ; and, second, a study of a small group 
in a very thoroughgoing manner. University and 
high-school students have been tested to determine 
their ability to spell a selected list of words, and 



6 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

an effort has been made to get from the students 
themselves an explanation of their own processes 
in attempting to spell the words given them, and 
of their training in respect to all the matters that 
might have a bearing on spelling efficiency. It be- 
came apparent as the results of these inquiries were 
gained that an investigation of this sort could not 
do more than open up the real vital problems of 
spelling ability, of method of teaching, and of the 
range of one's spelling vocabulary. In order to get 
at these problems in a more intimate way than 
could be done in studying a large body of pupils, it 
was necessary to have a limited group (it comprised 
four boys in the seventh and eighth grades, one a 
good speller, one an average speller, and two who 
were inferior in spelling) who could be taught spell- 
ing in a great variety of ways, and who could be fol- 
lowed from day to day in every phase of their 
reaction to the lessons given them and the tests 
applied to them. The results of these investigations 
are presented in Part I of this volume. Through- 
out the work, it was the aim to trace the steps by 
which each pupil mastered the words in the lists 
used. A record was kept of every detail of each 
pupil's experience in conquering new words, 
whether easy or difficult. An analysis was made of 
the structure of each word taught, to find out what 
part of it occasioned the chief trouble, and whether 
or not the crucial point was the same for all pupils. 
Individual differences in method of attacking words, 



INTRODUCTION 7 

in the types of errors made, in the readiness of 
overcoming the errors, and in getting a mastery of 
the correct forms were all carefully recorded, and 
the results are presented in this volume. It is be- 
lieved that in this way a rather interesting and 
valuable body of material is brought together and 
interpreted with respect to the practical problems 
of teaching spelling economically and effectively to 
pupils of different intellectual types. Suggestions 
regarding the treatment of pupils in mass and as 
individuals are made frequently throughout the dis- 
cussion of the various topics which are considered. 
The most important problem connected with the 
teaching of spelling has reference, no doubt, to the 
The spelling character and range of the vocab- 

vocabulary u i ary to b e taught. How many 

words and what ones should be presented in the 
elementary and high schools? All sorts of answers 
have been given to this question by various individ- 
uals ; and these have been based almost wholly upon 
individual opinion formed in one way or another. 
But it has seemed to the authors of this volume that 
the only rational way to determine the range of a 
spelling vocabulary is to> find out in some manner 
what words people actually use in the communica- 
tions of every-day life. So it was decided to exam- 
ine a large amount of correspondence in order to see 
what words were employed. This correspondence 
was selected so as to represent various interests 
and callings and occasions, and it is probable that 



8 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

it is quite typical of the needs of most American 
people in these times. All the words used were 
tabulated, and the frequency of the appearance of 
each word was determined. The results of the in- 
vestigation are presented in Part II of this book. 
After this list had been worked out, and it seemed 
apparent what words played the leading role in the 
e very-day writing of American people, it was de- 
cided to test the list by an examination of fresh 
correspondence, and by a study of the letters writ- 
ten by people in newspapers, these letters having 
reference to various topics, and produced by people 
in different walks of life. The list secured by the 
authors of this volume, which began to have the 
appearance of a standard list, was then compared 
with a list suggested by Ayres in an investigation 
which he made of business correspondence. It 
was found that the list derived from the family 
correspondence, and applied to all sorts of every- 
day writing, proved to be substantially a standard 
list. So the authors feel confident that the lists 
and tables as presented in Part II indicate quite 
accurately the needs of the typical American to-day 
in respect to written expression. 

In order to throw further light on this matter, 
there have been added as an Appendix to this vol- 
ume several lists of the words that children use 
more or less spontaneously in the different grades 
of the schools. It was thought that a comparison 
of these words with those which adults find neces- 



INTRODUCTION 9 

sary in order to express themselves effectively in 
every-day life might prove both interesting and 
useful. 

The lists that are presented in this volume may 
be regarded as well adapted to the needs of Ameri- 
can pupils who do not go into special pursuits, 
wherein they will be required to use special tech- 
nical terms that are rarely written by the great 
majority of people. Specialists will have need for 
this general standard list, if it may be so consid- 
ered ; but they will need in addition a few technical 
terms which can be acquired when the occasion for 
using them arises. 



CHAPTER II 

THE VALUE OF RULES FOR SPELLING 

yiN examination of modern texts in spelling 
Ji\. reveals a striking lack of agreement regarding 
the value of rules for the learner. The Natural 
Present opinion Speller and Word Book does not 
and practise contain a single rule, and there 

are other spellers that omit rules almost entirely. 
But The Normal Course in Spelling goes to the 
other extreme, with eighteen rules presented in the 
course of eighteen consecutive lessons, seven of 
them having reference to plural formations alone. 
The length and simplicity of rules in different text9 
vary from "Nouns in o after a vowel add s for 
the plural," with no exceptions, to "In monosylla- 
bles and words accented on the last syllable, a final 
consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suf- 
fix beginning with a vowel (x, k and y are never 
doubled), except when, in the derivative, the accent 
is thrown from the last syllable of the primitive,' , 
followed by the usual "other exceptions." 

In order to ascertain, if possible, the worth of 
ordinary rules in spelling, the following list of fifty 
words was submitted to certain classes of university 
students and high-school pupils. This list was sup- 

10 



THE VALUE OF RULES 



ii 



posed to be a fair test of spelling ability, since it con- 
tained only such terms as are found in nearly all 
typical spelling-books of the present day. Doubtless 
most of the students examined had spelled all of 
these words in their spelling lessons, at one time or 
another, though it is not maintained that the list as 
a whole is one of great service in ordinary written 
communication. 



1. ancient 

2. seizure 

3. foreign 

4. freight 

5. their 

6. conceivable 

7. piercing 

8. thievish 

9. grievance 

10. sieve 

11. achievement 

12. nervous 

13. encouragement 

14. awful 

15. argument 

16. peaceable 

17. changeable 



18. courageous 

19. shoeing 

20. singeing 

21. mileage 

22. pitiable 

23. furious 

24. greedier 

25. fanciful 

26. loveliest 

27. buried 

28. plenteous 

29. conveyance 

30. essayist 

31. betrayal 

32. dismayed 

33. paid 

34. daily 



35. concurrence 

36. regretted 

37. conference 

38. rebellion 

39. gases 

40. stoppage 

41. quitting 

42. benefited 

43. quarreling 

44. potatoes 

45. folios 

46. music 

47. frolic 

48. derrick 

49. tying 

50. dying 



It should be noted that this list is composed of 
words which exemplify seven rules, with their ex- 
Material used for ceptions. The first eleven words 
the test come under a rule which is often 

expressed as "i before e except after c, or when 
sounded like a, as in neighbor and weigh." The 
words, piercing, thievish, grievance, sieve and 
achievement, illustrate the first clause of the rule, 
conceivable, the second, and freight and their the 
third ; seizure and foreign are exceptions to the first 



12 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

clause, and ancient is an exception to the second 
clause. 

Seizure, conceivable, piercing, thievish, grievance, 
achievement, nervous, encouragement, awful, argu- 
ment, peaceable, changeable, courageous, shoeing, 
singeing and mileage are designed to cover a rule 
which may be stated thus : "Final e is dropped he- 
fore a suffix beginning with a vowel ; but it is re- 
tained ( i ) when the suffix begins with a consonant, 
(2) when a word in -ce or -ge adds -able or -ous, 
(3.) to keep the pronunciation of the word constant, 
(4) to maintain the identity of a word." Seizure, 
conceivable, piercing, thievish, grievance and ner- 
vous illustrate the dropping of e; mileage is an ex- 
ception; achievement and encouragement show re- 
tention of e under case ( 1 ) ; awful and argument 
are exceptions to case ( 1 ) ; peaceable, changeable 
and courageous come under case (2) ; shoeing and 
singeing stand for cases (3) and (4) respectively. 

Pitiable, furious, greedier, fanciful, loveliest, bur- 
ied, plenteous, conveyance, essayist, betrayal, dis- 
mayed, paid and daily come under the rule on final 
y: "Final y after a consonant changes to i before 
all suffixes not beginning with i; final y after a 
vowel is usually retained." Furious, greedier, fan- 
ciful, loveliest and buried illustrate the first part of 
the rule, plenteous being an exception ; conveyance, 
essayist, betrayal and dismayed illustrate the last 
part of the rule, while paid and daily are exceptions. 

Again, we have the rule : "Monosyllables and 
words accented on the last syllable, ending in a 



THE VALUE OF RULES 13 

consonant after a single vowel, double that con- 
sonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel, un- 
less the suffix changes the accent." This rule applies 
to concurrence, regretted, conference, rebellion, 
gases, stoppage, quitting and benefited. Gases is 
an exception, conference shows the change of accent 
on adding the suffix, and benefited is a word not 
accented on the last. 

Potatoes and folios were intended to bring out 
the less familiar rule, "Nouns in after a vowel 
add ^ for the plural." Music and frolic, with der- 
rick as an exception, show that "Polysyllables end- 
ing in the sound of k, in which c follows i or ia, 
do not add k" The last two words, tying and dying 
illustrate the rule that "Words in -ie substitute for 
these letters y before the ending ing." 

It was intended in this test to include words 
with only one authorized spelling ; but it seems that 
some authorities allow two I's in quarreling. Ac- 
cordingfy, this word was left out of account in the 
consideration of the rule for the final consonant. 
Payed was marked incorrect, inasmuch as that word 
was probably not the one meant by any person 
tested. 

This test was first made upon certain students 
in the freshman class in the University of Wiscon- 
The persons s i n - These students, because of 

tested deficient preparation, were a se- 

mester behind their class in English. The chief 
reason for giving them this test was the fact that 
over fifty per cent, of the seventy papers submitted 



14 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

were from students who, in February preceding the 
giving of the test, which occurred in November, 
191 1, had completed the course known as "Subfresh- 
man English," in which special emphasis is laid on 
spelling, the rules in general being thoroughly taught 
according to Wooley's Meclwnics of Writing * It 
should be said, however, that no instruction in spell- 
ing rules had been given during the semester in 
which the examination was held, though individual 
students had been referred to rules as their work 
required. The instructors gave this exercise as a 
part of the regular work of their classes, graded 
the words and noted the results. 

The written directions given each instructor for 
his class were as follows : 

I. Spell the following words, numbering them 
from 1 through to 50. (Then followed the 
list given above). 
II. Without changing any spellings, write all 
rules you consciously used in spelling this list, 
and after each rule the number of the words 
on which you used it, as 1st, 17th, etc. Do 
not be troubled by apparent exceptions to any 
rules you have in mind. Practically all have 
their exceptions. 
III. Write all rules you see exemplified by this 
list, but which you did not think of while 
spelling the words. If you can not give the 



* Seventy-six papers were received in all, but those of four 
foreigners, one person who came late to the test, and another 
person evidently of very defective hearing, were thrown out. 
In the other papers there was scarcely any difficulty due to 
lack of understanding. 



THE VALUE OF RULES 15 

rule for any case exactly, give its essence, or 
tell what it is about, even in a vague way. 
We want all you know about spelling rules. 
IV. If you should be unable to give any data 
under II or III, say whether any one has 
ever tried to teach you rules for spelling. 

A desire to please the instructor may have in- 
duced some students to say that rules not consciously 
used were so employed ; but all the evidence indicates 
that the students were not writing for the benefit 
of the instructors. One who fell somewhat below 
the average in spelling ability said : "The writer 
will admit that his spelling is not up to standard, 
but when he has any literary work to do his trusty 
Webster is always beside him." On the whole, the 
students were frank in their statements concerning 
their training and their attitude toward rules. 

Practically the same test was given to thirty-nine 
seniors and thirty freshmen in the Wisconsin High 
School, a secondary school under the control of the 
University. The word daily was replaced by so- 
los, which comes under a different rule ; and quar- 
reling by exhibition, which falls under the same rule. 
The first four rules involved in the test had been 
taught to these pupils about two months before, 
though in simpler forms than those given above. 
A list of ten to twenty words exemplifying these 
rules had been worked through daily in the classes, 
about ten successive days in the freshman class and 
three in the senior class. The test was given nearly 
six weeks after the learning of the rules had been 



i6 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

dropped as a class exercise. The fourth clause. of 
the instructions to the university freshmen was 
therefore left out in the directions to the high-school 
pupils, though the seniors were asked to give their 
opinion of the value of spelling rules to them, with- 
out regard to the supposed views of their teachers 
on the subject. 

As each of the seven groups of words was cor- 
rected separately, it resulted that the papers fell 
into three classes, according as the writers ( I ) con- 
sciously used a rule in writing any particular group 
of words; (2) later recalled a rule governing a cer- 
tain class of words, but did not consciously employ 
it; and (3) could not remember any rule that ap- 
plied to the words spelled. The records of these 
three classes are compared for each rule separately, 
since each rule needs to be considered independently 
of all others, because one rule may be very helpful to 
a learner, while another may not be of service to 
him. 

With reference to the first and second classes of 
papers just mentioned, it seems impossible to sep- 

Conscious versus arate the conscious from the auto^ 
unconscious func- matic use of a rule. A rule might 
tioning of a rule , , , . , , 

be used consciously and very help- 
fully for a time, and then cease to be so employed, 
though it might still be of advantage in determining 
the spelling of certain words. It is for this reason 
that the records of all those having any knowledge 
of a rule are presented together. Some advocates 



THE VALUE OF RULES 



17 



of rules may go so far as to say that those unable 
to cite any rule in spelling might nevertheless have 
realized some benefit from it before it was forgotten. 
This surely would not hold in the case of the students 
who took this special test. The recency with which 
they had been taught rules certainly gave the latter 
every possible advantage. 

The per cents, in the following table indicate the 
amount of correct spelling only so far as this is gov- 
erned by rules. For example, if the i and e are 
correctly arranged in ancient, the word is consid- 
ered correct in this table, even if there be elsewhere 
an error, making wrong the word as a whole. This 
method of recording is adopted necessarily because 
our inquiry has to do only with the observance of 
the rules. 

TABLE I 

OBSERVANCE OF THE RULES 





Conscious 


Unconscious 


Combination 


Unable to 
Cite Any Rule 




of Rule While 
Writing 


of Rule While 
Writing 


of All Citing 
a Rule 




High 


Univer- 


High 


Univer- 


High 


Univer- 


High 


Univer- 


RULE 


School 


sity 


School 


sity 


School 


sity 


School 


sity 






•* 




•fS. 




ts. 




TR 




■* 




>a 




>ft 




>«. 






<u 




<U 




OJ 




0J 




OJ 




<u 




CD 




« 




a 


bfl 


a 


U 


c 


tm 




So 


o 


he 




6£ 


r, 


60 




ba 






re 
































"2 


< 




< 




< 


-5 


> 

< 


T5 


< 


-0 


9 

< 


■so 

U2 


< 


$3 
55 


< 


ie-ei 


1fi 


79 


85 


87 


15 


71 


5 


87 


31 


75 


30 


87 


38 


73 


40 


8« 


Final e 


31 
11 
1.5 


81 
74 

78 


20 
IS 
32 


87 
94 

88 


21 

18 
27 


78 
72 


9 
13 
2 


94 
95 
87 


52 
29 
42 


80 
70 
74 


29 
31 

34 


89 
94 

88 


17 
40 
27 


82 
73 
75 


41 
89 
36 


98 


Final y 


91 


Final consonant .. 


84 


Final ie 
















5 


80 


18 


95 


64 


61 


52 


H9 




1 "" 













18 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

Curiously enough, most of the university students 
who said they consciously used the ie-ei rule relied 
The function of on mnemonic devices which gave 
the ie-ei rule a c j ue to only one or two of the 

eleven words. Of these devices the word "Alice" 
was the most common. It is used to indicate that 
when i and e occur as a diphthong after / and c, i 
always follows directly after / and e follows di- 
rectly after c. The slight superiority of those citing 
a rule does not, therefore, seem to be due entirely 
to the rule itself. Three subjects made one or more 
errors by stating the wrong rule and following it; 
while four made one or more errors by not follow- 
ing the rules they gave. No high-school freshman 
mentioned a rule as it had been taught to him, but 
four gave it nearly correct. Several of them wrote 
something about "When the word ends in ie or ei" 
etc., plainly confusing it with two of the other rules. 
Three seniors gave the rule substantially as they 
learned it, but nearly all the others who' cited any- 
thing gave a version of something taught in earlier 
years — the "Alice" rule, et al. 

Sixteen different rules were stated by the twenty 
university students who told how they solved the 
Value of rule problem of final e. The most 

on final e nearly complete statement of a 

rule was — "Drop final e before a suffix beginning 
with a consonant or to preserve the identity of a 
word." The rule seemed to be too complex for 
most of the writers. They stated it in general 



THE VALUE OF RULES 19 

outline, without any qualification, or gave only some 
very special application of it. Several who had the 
case of -ce and -ge in mind were far more success- 
ful than the average. Three- fourths of the high- 
school students said they remembered some part of 
this rule. About a dozen had it very nearly exact 
in the simple form in which it was recently taught 
to them, but their grade in spelling was not above 
the average. 

Several university freshmen cited the rule for 
final y in acceptable form. The high-school fresh- 
Value of rule m en excelled the seniors in its re- 
on final y ca u The latter seemed unable 
either to use it or to recall it. It might be noted 
here that while the observance of this rule was 
easiest for the university group, and showed an 
advantage of three per cent, with them, it was most 
difficult for the high-school group, and showed with 
them a disadvantage of three per cent. This seems 
to show that something more than the use of the 
rule is involved. Very probably this rule, and hence 
the words to which it applies, had received rela- 
tively less attention at the hands of the high-school 
teacher and, on the contrary, relatively more atten- 
tion in the carefully outlined work of the university 
classes. 

Several of the college students were able to give 
more or less accurately the rule for doubling the 
Value of rule for fi na l consonant. In this case the 
final consonant citations were not so much incor- 



2o THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

rect as insufficient, i.e., they were so phrased as to 
apply to only a very few of the cases which the 
rule as a whole covers. There seemed little in the 
rule itself to cause confusion or misapplication. 
About fifteen of the high-school freshmen and three 
of the seniors quoted the rule substantially as it 
was taught to them, but they failed to show any 
better average in their spelling than those who gave 
insufficient or erroneous versions of the rule. The 
correct application of the rule, as it had been given 
them by their teacher a few weeks before, would 
have enabled these students to attain an average of 
about eighty-three per cent., instead of the seventy- 
four per cent, which they actually attained. This 
certainly offsets the value of the rule in the spelling 
of the college students. 

The rule relating to the spelling of the last two 
words of the list appears to be more serviceable 
Value of rule than the other rules. It applies 

for final ie ^ a c j ass f wor d s without ex- 

ceptions. Thirteen of the sixteen college students 
who used it consciously stated it and applied it 
correctly. The high- school students who had 
learned it some time were less successful in ap- 
plying it, though four of them quoted it correctly. 
The rule relating to music, frolic and derrick was 
not given by any one, so there was no chance for 
comparison. A few who tried to formulate a rule 
on plurals for potatoes, folios and solos, attained 
a rank about twenty per cent, below their fellows 
in their spelling. 



THE VALUE OF RULES 21 

The attitude of the college freshmen seemed gen- 
erally unfavorable to rules. Teachers were charged 
Students' attitude with having laid but little stress 
toward rules on them, or with having failed to 

insist on their application until thoroughly mastered. 
One writer said : "I knew most of the spelling rules, 
but they have become so indefinite in my memory 
that I am mixed up if I use them/' Another said 
that he "attempted to learn rules for spelling but 
thought it added to the difficulty." Four others 
declared, after giving one or more rules, that they 
had decided that the way the word "looks" is the 
best guide. One of them complained of the long 
list of exceptions. Four who had been in the course 
in Subfreshman English* reported that they had 
lost almost all of the rules then taught them. One 
gave this amusing but rather significant testimony: 
"I was greatly helped, but because of lack of prac- 
tise they have grew vague." This suggests that it 
may be just as difficult after children have been 
spelling somewhat automatically for several years 
to get them to spell by rule, as it is in language 
work to get them to base their expressions on 
grammatical rules. The high-school seniors gave 
testimony substantially the same as that given by 
the college students. Only ten out of thirty-nine 
ascribed any value to rules. 

In summary, it may be said that no one rule was 
quoted by as many as fifty per cent, of the university 
students, though more than half of them had memo- 



* See p. 14. 



22 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

rized all these rules, and others besides, only the win- 
ter before ; and many of the students had been over 
all of the rules in the public school. A little less 
than half the high-school students had the courage 
to try to give the rules they had learned only six 
weeks previously. In the university group, those 
who gave some sort of rule to cover any part of 
the list of words, averaged four per cent, higher 
in general spelling efficiency than those who could 
not give any rule. So it is fair to assume that 
their better observance of the rules as shown by 
Table I is the result of their better spelling ability 
in general, and not to any conscious application of 
the rules as such. Not a single rule tested proved 
to be of real value, except the one for the last two 
words of the list — that relating to the final ie. In 
later chapters we shall have much to say respecting 
the way in which a pupil actually does learn to spell, 
and this may help to explain why rules do not 
play a very important part in the process. 



CHAPTER III 

SOURCES AND CAUSES OF ERRORS 

THERE have appeared in print from time to 
time long lists of misspelled words selected 
from civil service examinations or tests of public 
school children by boards of education or others 
who are inclined to think that spelling efficiency 
has declined since the days of our forefathers. To 
those engaged in teaching it is discouraging rather 
than helpful to learn that a recent test of two 
hundred thirty-seven university sophomores and 
freshmen resulted in the misspelling of Macaulay 
by one hundred eighty-one.* But the report of this 
experiment goes further, and informs us that the 
one hundred eighty-one students who failed to spell 
the name of this well-known English author ex- 
hibited only fifty-one different ways of missing the 
word. It appears from this fact that some forms 
of misspelling are repeated by different individuals, 
which suggests that a few particular erroneous com- 
binations may enjoy a certain kind of popularity 
among those who take liberties in the matter of 
spelling. 



* Bulletin of Illinois Association of Teachers of English. 
Vol. Ill, No. 8, 

23 



24 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

Now, for the better teaching of spelling it seems 

important that teachers should know how various 

- T , . ,' common words are most often 

Need o£ deter- 
mining causes misspelled ; yet one finds a general 

lack of understanding on the part 
of teachers relating to this matter. Some schools 
are doing a valuable work, however, in compiling 
lists of words misspelled in the upper grades, and 
referring them to teachers in the lower grades to 
be given some special attention. Where the schools 
are well organized, certain portions of such a 
list can be referred to the particular teacher who 
is likely to be responsible for establishing the first 
impressions of the words that give trouble. But 
teachers ought to know, in order to be of greatest 
service to their pupils, not simply that separate is 
a commonly misspelled word, but they should know 
also just where the mistake is likely to occur, and 
why, so that attention may be effectively directed 
to the source of trouble. While in many words, 
of which separate is an illustration, most teachers 
are aware of the point of special difficulty, there 
are many other words presented in the schoolroom, 
the difficult parts of which are not known to the 
teacher in advance. The writers have been im- 
pressed with this fact in the experimental work 
performed on the group of boys spoken of in 
Chapter I. The sources of error which the in- 
structor tried to guard against in the teaching of 
the lessons did not, he often found upon test, con- 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 



25 



stitute the major difficulties at all; lie had been 
aiming at the wrong point. Any teacher can see 
how subtle a matter it is to pick out the sources 
of error, if he will give a list of common words 
to his class, and then tabulate the frequency of the 
various misspellings of each word. As a basis for 
discussion of this problem, it will be advisable to 
consult the tabulation of the misspellings of some 
common words as they occurred in the one hundred 
thirty-nine papers referred to in Chapter II. In the 
interpretation of these data, it should be understood 
that the writers are relying on observations of the 
group of boys already spoken of. Without such 
first-hand observation, it is impossible for an adult 
to be reliable in his explanations and deductions 
regarding a psychological experience remote in his- 
own past. 

TABLE II 





Frequency of Occurrence 


Spelling 


CO G 
> CO 


High- 
School 
Seniors 


High- 
School 
Freshmen 


ancient 


70 


36 


21 


anceint 




2 


2 


anciant 




.... 


3 


anscient 




I 


I 


anchint 




.... 


I 


antient 




.... 


I 


anxsion 




.... 


I 



26 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



Spelling 




Frequency of Occurrence 



A "2 6 
1*2.3 



foreign 

foriegn 

forgein 

forgien 

foregin 

foreighn 

foriegm 

foregien 

forein . 

f oren . . 

forhead 

thorn . . 

thorm . . 

piercing 

peircing 

pierceing 

peirceing 

pearcing 

pircing . 

percing 

perssing 

preicing 

personly 

sieve . . 
seive . . 
sive . . . 
ceive . . 



64 
4 



66 
2 
2 



45 

18 

6 



33 

2 



3i 

2 
2 
2 



21 
10 

5 



15 
4 
4 
2 

1 
1 
1 



1 
1 

18 

4 
2 
1 
2 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 



27 



Spelling 




Frequency of Occurrence 



Siv 

seeve 

scive 

siev 

sceve 

seieve 

cib 

shaney ...... 

shafe 

(omitted) . . . 

nervous 

nerveous .... 

nervious 

nervice 

nervess 

nervase 

neverous .... 

nerivous 

(illegible) . . . 

encouragement 
encouragment 
encourgement 
engarrment . . 
injurment . . . 
encoerrgement 
encourgment . 



67 



64 
6 



3i 
4 
3 



33 
6 



17 
5 
1 
2 
2 

1 

1 
1 

16 

4 
6 
1 
1 
1 
1 



28 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



Frequency of Occurrence 



Spelling 




awful .... 
aw full . . . 
auful .... 
awe full . . 
auwfull . . 
awfle .... 
awfful . . . 
auffell ... 
affull .... 

offel 

offul 

offull 

(illegible) 

argument . 
arguement 
aurguement 
argement . 
argurment 
humment . 
( omitted ) 

dismayed . , 
dismade . . 
dismaid . . 
dismay . . . 
desmayed . 
desmaied . 
dismeyed , 



65 



59 
11 



69 



32 

3 
1 



32 
6 



28 
2 

4 
2 

1 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 



29 



Spelling 




Frequency of Occurrence 



dismayence 

dismaided 

dissmayed 

dimayed 

betrayal 

betrail 

betrayel 

(other purely individ- 
ual errors) 

benefited 

benefitted 

benifited 

benifitted 

benifit 

benefitied 

benafated 

benifetted 

benefitting 

benfitting 

benfited 

benififted 

binefited 



64 

2 
3 

1 

33 

25 



1 
1 

24 
6 
6 



18 
11 

6 

-2 



17 
2 



The above eleven words, tabulated in their vari- 
ous forms, were chosen at random from the list 
of fifty given to the students; and they illustrate 



30 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

most, if not all, of the principles to be brought 
out in this chapter. A few of the words, which 
showed the greatest variety of odd misspellings, 
were excluded from the eleven' presented above in 
order to save space. 

A study of this table of misspellings reveals a 
number of principles. In the first place, most read- 
Prevalence of ers will be willing to admit that 
chance errors j n reS p ec t to practically every 
word there are evidences of chance errors due to 
slips of the pen, misunderstanding of the word, or 
both. Scarcely any one will maintain that the wri- 
ters of such forms as anxsion, cib, shaney, sfoafe, 
never ous, engarrment, injurment, humment, dismay- 
ence, dismay, dismaided and benefifted were trying 
to write the precise words they were asked to spell. 
The misunderstanding may have been due to faulty 
pronunciation by the teacher, or it may be that 
the ear of the pupil was at fault. Again, it may 
have been due to the apperceptive difficulty most 
of us experience when we hear a name or isolated 
word. In such spellings as forhead and thorn (for 
foreign), and personly (for piercing) it is evident 
that the pupil read a wrong meaning into the sounds 
which he thought he heard. 

Slips of the pen are accountable for some 

errors. Thorm shows the common occurrence 

. , of m when n is intended; and 

Slips of the pen 

the reverse is as often true. 

Dimayed represents another very common mis- 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 31 

take, the hand omitting a letter in order to 
abbreviate the process of writing. There is strong 
probability of the same thing being true for 
argement, benfited and benfitting. Sometimes this 
curtailment takes place at the end of a word, as 
in siv, although this explanation is especially per- 
tinent to such a form as freigh (for freight), the 
gh being so common a termination that it often 
automatically asserts itself in wrong places. A let- 
ter from a county superintendent recently received 
by one of the writers contained three successive 
words with the last letter omitted. Most students 
in taking rapidly the notes for a lecture are liable 
to use the for they, them, etc. What we call 
"carelessness" accounts ordinarily for such lapses 
in writing a spelling lesson in column, unless the 
pupil is greatly hurried. 

Preicing (for piercing) and mielage (for mile- 
age) illustrate another sort of error in spelling, the 
inversion of the order of the letters. But the 
shifting about of the g in foreign can hardly be 
attributed to the same cause. The silent letter, by 
virtue of the very fact that it is silent, is liable 
to suffer all sorts of displacement. It is interesting 
to note that the same trick, inversion of literal or- 
der, is sometimes played by one's vocal organs, as 
common observation shows, not only with reference 
to oral spelling but also with reference to words 
and expressions, such as the famous "Peter Piper" 
jingle. Not only does a pupil change the order of 



32 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

letters occasionally, or skip a letter or syllable in 
order to facilitate execution, but the process is some- 
times reversed, resulting in the repetition of a 
phrase, word or portion of a word in the writing 
of connected discourse. To this cause is due such 
a spelling as convey anance (for conveyance). 

Several of these types of mistakes have been 
mentioned because they occur so frequently in every 
Treatment schoolroom. A teacher should 

of lapses regard them 1 simply as lapses, 

which may not occur the second time with the same 
individual. Of course, if the same error does occur 
again, the chances are that it is not a lapse; but 
a wise teacher can not permit his attention to be 
distracted by mere lapses from the real points at 
issue in teaching a list of words. Teachers often 
fail to differentiate these "pen-slips" from errors 
due to lack of knowledge. Often, too, teachers 
mark as absolutely wrong a word which, although 
written incorrectly originally, was seen to be incor- 
rect by the pupil, and voluntarily corrected before 
the time for the submission of the work. Many 
lapses are detected in this way by those who com- 
mit them. On such a theory of grading, a con- 
tractor would penalize one of his bricklayers just 
as heavily for tearing down a defective portion of 
a wall as for building the superstructure upon it 
without remedying the defect. It is probable that 
such lapses as have been described are in no way 
related to real errors; and they can not be wholly 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 33 

overcome, unless facility in expression be seriously 
interfered with by giving too much attention to the 
technique of writing. 

In the teaching of spelling in our public schools, 
a distinction should be made between lapses and 
real errors. Each must be penalized, but not in 
equal measure. Certain forms of lapses may be- 
come individual characteristics. One subject has 
been observed in whose writing think tends always 
to be written thing. A university student recently 
complained that he had to fight constantly against 
interchanging for each other d and g, both in pre- 
paring manuscript and in typewriting. These in- 
stances are given to show the likelihood that a 
careful record of misspellings may enable a teacher 
in time to detect the characteristic lapses of certain 
pupils, so that the latter may be put on their guard, 
and asked to go over their work in order to check 
up on their special failings. Most teachers find 
by experience that the vague unparticularized com- 
mand, "Look over your work/' can secure only 
meager results at best. 

Let us leave out of consideration the particular 
misspellings which occur but a single time in the 
lists of Table II, as being for the most part lapses, 
and see whether or not among the other misspell- 
ings, those due to lack of knowledge, the compara- 
tive popularity of certain errors may not be clearly 
established. In arranging the table, there was an 
attempt made to place the misspellings in the gen- 



34 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

eral order of their frequency, the most common 
ones standing first. One striking fact relates to 
the great difference in relative number of the vari- 
ous misspellings of a word, which must be due 
to a marked tendency of pupils to commit some 
particular error. Another suggestive fact is that the 
order of frequency of the misspellings of any word 
is almost exactly the same for all three groups 
of students. There would appear, then, to be in 
the constitution of certain words special difficulties 
which are a source of trouble to a majority of 
children learning to spell. 

It is not always possible to tell just which mis- 
takes are due to lack of knowledge and which to 

Is there a critical lapse ; but taking the situation as 
point in a word? we fi n( j j t> j et us see whether a 

study of the frequency of different errors will not 
enable us to determine critical points, or perhaps 
the critical point in a given word, so that if some 
particular letter or brief combination of letters be 
properly impressed, the misspelling of that word 
will be likely to be corrected. Seven out of twelve 
pupils who missed ancient did so because the com- 
bination ie was not thoroughly familiar, and with 
four of the seven it was merely a question of the 
order of the two letters. Twenty-seven missed 
foreign, four of them trying to spell something 
else. Of the other twenty-three, the failure of ten 
was due solely to the reversal of the letters ei, 
Twenty- four students missed piercing, two of them 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 35 

probably by chance. Eight of the others failed 
solely by reversing the letters ei, six by retaining 
final e and three by combining the two forms of 
error. Half of those missing sieve spelled it seive, 
and over a fourth made it sive. The other errors 
were peculiar and exceptional, save for ceive, which 
appeared three times. Again, of twenty-four errors 
in writing nervous, ten made it nerve ous, and five 
others wrote nervious, thus showing the difficulty 
to be at the same place in the word in every case. 
Out of twenty-six mistakes in writing encourage- 
ment, sixteen were written encouragment. Argue- 
ment is the only misspelling of argument that is 
not strictly individual. These and similar cases 
that could be cited from the list of fifty words, 
show that from one-third to two-thirds of all diffi- 
culties in spelling lie at the point of a word covered 
by some rule relating to it. 

Underlying much of the belief in the value of 
the teaching of rules has been the assumption that 

- . , . they relate to the points of chief 

Crucial points ,.-!,. 

often not covered difficulty in the words to which 

y ru es they refer. Some data bearing on 

this matter may be gained from an examination of 

the spelling of a number of the fifty words already 

given. The retention of e, as in awe full, appeared 

in only two of twenty cases of misspellings of 

this word, but the much less commonly taught rule 

{full does not occur as a suffix), was violated by 

a majority of the twenty students. In benefited, 



36 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

tt appears in violation of the rule fifty-eight 
times; but beni, in violation of no rule, occurs 
thirty-five times. Thus the difficulties are some- 
what evenly distributed. In buried the results are 
quite different. Twelve out of twenty-six doubled 
the r, and eight others combined it with another 
error. But only two violated the special rule re- 
lating to the retaining of the y in bury. Out of 
fifty- seven students who made errors in spelling 
essayist, thirty wrote essayest, while only eighteen 
violated the rule by omitting y. Eight of the 
eighteen can hardly be said to have broken the rule, 
since they did not write anything that could be 
recognized by a person not knowing what word was 
given out. Forty-two missed exhibition, but only 
one did so by violating the rule covering the doub- 
ling of the final consonant. Thirty-eight had no 
h in their spelling. In foreign, on the other hand, 
the omission of silent g was too unusual to create 
a problem. In concurrence, ance is a markedly more 
prevalent error than the failure to double the r as 
required by the rule. So if one were to say that 
the critical point in the spelling of those words that 
come under some rule is always the point covered 
by the rule, one would not be in accord with the 
facts. 

A few words in the list show a great diversity 
of genuine misspellings, but the errors are usually 
localized at one or two points in the words. Of 
about twenty misspellings of grievance, there were 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 37 

only two that did not preserve the consonant skele- 
ton gr-v-nce. In thirteen misspellings of pitiable 
nearly all the trouble centered in the doubling of 
the t, and following it with the wrong vowel. It 
may be concluded that for ordinary words of three 
or four syllables, there is a single letter or diphthong 
that causes most of the trouble, and that it is 
altogether unusual to find more than two crucial 
points in a common word. It is plain that a 
knowledge of rules simply does not inform the 
teacher where the stress in teaching particular words 
is to be laid ; nor does the presence of a silent letter 
or the possible doubling of a consonant necessarily 
lay bare the source of difficulty. Every word pre- 
senting serious problems to the novice must be 
studied by itself, and the teacher can deal with it 
effectively only after examining the misspellings to 
see where the crucial points are. This can be done 
by any one who will tabulate the frequency of as 
many as fifty cases of misspelling of a word, though 
a smaller number will be suggestive. • 

The discovery of the causes of error in spelling 
is the next step to be considered. This is an 
Mispronunciation easier matter than to locate crucial 
as a cause of error points. The cause of an error can 
ordinarily be detected from its character by teachers 
of experience. Few teachers need to be impressed 
with the importance of correct pronunciation of 
words to be spelled. The spelling exercise will al- 
most daily bring to light some errors due to mispro- 



38 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

nunciation by the teacher, or by the pupils them- 
selves. Anchint is very likely a phonetic spelling of a 
mispronunciation of ancient. Outside of a few 
words of French origin, ch almost never has the 
sound sh. The same cause of error in spelling is seen 
in percing and perssing, and probably in nerivous. 
The spelling of encourgement six times and en- 
courgment once by the high-school freshmen shows 
a lack of distinct articulation which among the 
younger students is a common practise. Even 
adults who give the a in courage a distinct value, 
tend to slight it or wholly to elide it in the longer 
forms, such as encouragement, discouragement, and 
the variations of the verbs from which these two 
nouns are derived. Des- in dismayed is another 
error due to mispronunciation. Benafated and beni- 
fetted illustrate the same principle, as disclosed by 
the vowel after /. The easiest and surest method 
for a teacher to test the question of pronunciation is 
to ask a child to pronounce a misspelling just after 
he has written it. Oral spelling, of course, offers 
ready means of making such a test. 

There can be no danger in insisting that all words 
to be spelled by a pupil should be pronounced cor- 
rectly by him as the first step in the lesson study. 
Even then it will be found that errors such as 
unanimous for unanimous will appear now and 
again, because pupils can not or at least do not 
hold the pronunciation faithfully in mind as they 
write. Errors due to mispronunciation are not so 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 39 

numerous as those due to other causes which we 
shall discuss later. They are, however, of much 
greater frequency and importance in the lower 
grades of the elementary school than in the high 
school, for many of them have been acquired by 
the child before school age. 

It is peculiarly difficult to forecast what are the 
probable mispronunciations that will occur in the 
case of certain words, since two different sets of 
influences produce these errors. On the one hand, 
we have those individual associations made by each 
child for himself, such as caused one child to call 
a screen door "a scream door," because, as she 
afterward stated, it made such a noise when it 
closed. On the other hand, there are the peculiar 
survivals of the nature of dialect in the speech of 
every child, reflecting the idiosyncrasies in the 
spoken language of his family and friends. 

A most fruitful cause of errors in spelling is 
phonetic analogy. Persons with whom the auditory 
Analogies in factor predominates are much 

spelling subject to this difficulty. Some- 

times the analogy covers only a brief phonetic unit, 
while at ot,her times a word is taken over entire. 
Antient shows the persistence of the common ele- 
ment ti, phonetically equivalent to sh. Pearcing is 
the result either of drawing an analogy from ear, 
fear, dear, etc., or it comes directly from the proper 
name Pearce. Words having the suffix -less or 
-ness may have been the cause of the spelling of 



4 o THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

nervous as nervess; and novice and service may 
explain nervice. A very special case is presented 
by the like sounds of certain consonants or com- 
binations of consonants, as in the case of anscient, 
where sci is inferred from conscience. Likewise, 
the various uses of c, s and sc produced considerable 
confusion in sieve. The alternative of s or z is 
troublesome in some words not noted above, as, for 
example, seizure. 

Another factor is introduced when a child 
takes over a word as a whole on account of 
phonetic analogy, as ceaseur (for seizure), piece- 
able (for peaceable), berried (for buried), dis- 
made and dismaid (for dismayed). The pu- 
pil usually disregards the content of both the 
word transferred, and of the word to which 
he makes the transfer. This is not the case 
with the writing of full in awful, since the signifi- 
cance of awful is actually "full of awe"; but it is 
true of off in offidl (for awful). And when piece 
enters into peaceable, maid or made into dismayed, 
trail into betrayal, and fitted into benefited, we have 
the incorporation into one word of another word 
altogether extraneous to the situation in which it 
is placed. Such mistakes tend to decrease with the 
development of a critical attitude toward one ? s 
language. When a student begins to diagnose his 
mother tongue, the idea of content comes to dom- 
inate in word composition, and he resists phonic 
analogies which have no regard to content. The in- 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 41 

troduction of a foreign language, especially German, 
into the elementary school should be helpful in giv- 
ing students this attitude. Younger students can 
not be placed on their guard too fully against think- 
ing they may cite this or that word as a justification 
for the spelling of another word in a particular 
manner. There is only one real authority, and that 
is the way the word is spelled. Inferences may be 
drawn only from such other words as have a sim- 
ilarity in content. 

Many teachers have recognized as a cause of 
error the obscure or elided vowel, i. e., the vowel 
Obscure or which, though not silent, has its 

elided vowels sound so slurred as to deprive it 

of individuality. We see this in such words as 
separate, infinite, and words terminating in -able or 
-ible. The learner's tendency is to interchange i 
and a, or to substitute e for either of them. U may 
sometimes interfere, but scarcely ever does 0. In 
some spelling-books, lists of words containing such 
vowels are printed or written with the difficult 
vowel in heavy or unique type. In the schoolroom 
they are often written on the blackboard in chalk 
of a different color from the body of the word. 
But it is safe to assert that few teachers in the 
elementary school recognize that the obscure vowel 
is always a possible source of error. The writers 
have found by experience that they can not detect 
by a cursory examination all of these letters in lists 
of words in spelling lessons ; they can be discovered 



42 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

only after painstaking search. One would hardly 
think the second vowel in benefit would give trouble, 
but the writers found it to be so in thirty-five out 
of eighty- four misspellings of the word. Final e 
in a number of monosyllables does not have any 
sound whatever in itself, but it might be considered 
as one type of elided vowel, because it modifies the 
pronunciation of the word. It is not often omitted 
by mistake, however, probably on account of the 
prominence of its position. Every obscure vowel 
ought to be presented with stress from the start; 
either by positive means, such as fixing the impres- 
sion by auditory and visual stimuli, intense and re- 
peated, or by the negative method of warning 
against the use of other letters which the pupil might 
be inclined to employ in its place. The latter method 
will further on be shown to have its dangers; and 
if it be employed at all, it must be closely watched 
for its effects. 

The mistake of doubling a letter happens much 
less frequently with the vowels than with the con- 

^ . .. . sonants, probably because the 

Doubling letters , , , , , , ,. . 

doubled vowel has a distinct- 
ive sound in the case of oo. The other vowels, except 
e, are not commonly doubled. But most of the con- 
sonants are frequently doubled, and the result is not 
apparent from the pronunciation of a word. The 
place where doubling is likely to occur is usually in 
the middle of a word where a syllable stops or 
begins with a certain consonant. The mistake arises 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 43 

in assigning the consonant to each of the two ad- 
jacent syllables, as slugging (for singeing), millage 
(for mileage), pittiable (for pitiable), furrious (for 
furious) and hurried (for buried). Following the 
same principle, one member of a double consonant 
may be dropped under like circumstances, as der- 
ick (for derrick), stopage (for stoppage) and re- 
belion (for rebellion). 

Just what corrective measures, if any, are espe- 
cially adapted to counteracting this difficulty, can not 
be stated with confidence. It is impossible to form- 
ulate rules for doubling letters that shall cover any 
large number of cases without numerous exceptions. 
For a discussion of the efficacy of such rules the 
reader is referred to Chapter II. Directing the at- 
tention upon the crucial points is recommended, as 
in the case of elided vowels. Special stress on 
double combinations, by means of oral spelling with- 
out regard to syllabication, might prove very helpful 
as a means of fixing the doubled letter, especially 
for those in whom auditory imagery is strong. The 
method might be, for example, as follows : Have 
pupils spell coffee — iC c-o- double /- double e," or 
village — "v-i double l-a-g-e," and so on. 

This brings us to an important principle con- 
nected with spelling that is closely related to 

,- . . A several causes of error. Just 

Types of letters J 

half the letters of the al- 
phabet are "single-space" letters. Six rise more 
than one space above the base line, five pass below 



44 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

it but only a single space above it, while / and p 
stretch both above and below the "single-space" let- 
ters. In printing, / and p fall into- one of the 
three distinct classes, but the classification here has 
regard only to writing. Considering the last two 
letters as hybrids or combinations, we have the three 
types of letters— the "ascender," the "single-space" 
and the "descender." Now, if any ordinary writing 
be examined, two-thirds of the letters occurring 
will be found to be of the single-space variety. 
Most of the others will be "ascenders." But it is 
plain that either the first or the third class of letters 
will stand out more prominently than the second, 
just as a pedestrian of uncommon color, garb or 
language will be more marked than one who 
is conventional in these respects. It is likewise true 
that the further removed such a letter is from others 
of its kind in a given word, the more prominently 
it will stand forth. 

This principle explains why, in the various mis- 
spellings of such a word as ancient, most students 
made mistakes which did not interfere seriously 
with the visual image of the word, i. e., they 
maintained the succession of single-space letters. 
In foreign the visual impression made by g, rather 
isolated from other unusual and striking letters, 
causes it to be found, rightly or wrongly placed, 
in nearly every misspelling of the word. On the 
other hand, exhibition presents an alternating series 
of short and tall letters, and the omission or mis- 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 45 

placing of h does not seriously affect the visual 
image. This also accounts for the difficulty in 
doubling or not doubling letters, the substitution of 
one vowel for another when the sound is obscured, 
and the confusion of c, s and sc, though it does 
not explain the interchanging of s and s. To illus- 
trate further, if ^ were written old style, we should 
be much less likely to find pasion (for passion), 
or if e after n were a "descender," we should not 
have found benifit thirty-five times in our list of 
misspellings. 

Dividing a word into syllables may act as 
a preventive of error to the extent that it 

_ „ , . . secures correct pronunciation, 

Syllabication , . . 

and checks the omission of 

syllables in long words. Yet it may well be 
asked whether the short e in benefited, for 
example, is more likely to be remembered because 
ben- is recalled as the first syllable instead of be-, 
or whether, as in the case of one of the writers, 
ben- is recalled as constituting the first syllable be- 
cause the correct pronunciation is remembered. This 
difficulty would not exist if ben- were visually pre- 
sented as a distinct syllable just as often as the 
auditory element is repeated by speaking the word, 
hearing it spoken, or writing it. But ben- as a 
visual entity disappears from consciousness as soon 
as the pupil turns from the spelling lesson, while 
the word remains as a unit in audition, in content, 
and most of all, in vision. 



46 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

Whether this view is sound or not, it can not 
be denied that syllabication is often merely arbitrary 
as far as pronunciation is concerned, whereas it is 
usually thought by adults to be fully in accord with 
the phonetic character of words. To adults there 
is no inconsistency in saying that such a combina- 
tion as betrail consists of two syllables; while be- 
trayal, of course, contains three. But a child can 
write them interchangeably and see no violation of 
phonetics, just as when a boy writes mechanisem 
(for mechanism). The almost universal resistance 
of children's minds to proper syllabication indicates 
that it is a matter of unusual psychological signifi- 
cance and that it should be regarded with due cau- 
tion as an aid to correct spelling. 

If the propositions so far advanced have been 

true in the main — if each word presents a special 

^. A . complex of visual and auditory 

Directing atten- r m J 

tion to the crucial elements, different from all other 
point in each word words _ there will neC essarily be 

unique features or factors in the teaching of 
each word. For example, in the teaching of 
ancient one should call special attention to the 
sh sound in pronunciation and note the spelling 
in this case; ie also should be stressed. Foreign 
will not be found hard to pronounce correctly, but 
the ei should be made the stressing point, not simply 
in itself, but in relation to the shifting g. In 
benefited the second e must be presented with force 
from the start. If this be done, probably the i will 



SOURCES OF ERRORS 47 

never appear, for there are no common words in 
bent-. But citing several common ones like benefi- 
cial, benevolence and benediction might strengthen 
the correct impression. The tt in benefitted can not 
be so well dealt with on a visual or auditory basis, 
but the element of content may be invoked by show- 
ing the words fit, unfit, misfit, discussing their re- 
lation to one another, bringing out the tt in the 
appropriate form of each, and then dissociating the 
content, hence the spelling of benefit from the con- 
tent and spelling of these other words. Such is 
the type of "word study" that must come to have 
a place in every schoolroom in which spelling is 
taught. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE LIFE HISTORY OF CERTAIN SPELLINGS 

IT is desired to show in this chapter just what 
stages a group of boys passed through in learn- 
ing a list of about seventy words chosen from a 
Words assigiied widely-used spelling text. The 
in experiments subjects of this experiment were 

the four boys mentioned in Chapter I. A daily 
assignment was made for five successive days. The 
experimenter wrote the words on the board in "fam- 
ilies" as he called them, such as inspire, inspiration; 
mechanism, mechanic, mechanical, and so on. There 
were from six to twelve such groups in each day's 
lesson. The original intention was to present a 
series of twenty or twenty-five lessons by five dif- 
ferent methods, following one another in a constant 
order, as a basis for determining the comparative 
merits of the different methods of presentation ; but 
the text-book list was so far beyond the ability of 
the class, and, it is believed, so far beyond that of 
the ordinary child for whom it is designed, that 
it was decided at the end of the fifth lesson to 
concentrate upon these seventy-five words, and see 

4 8 



THE LIFE HISTORY 49 

what experiences the pupils must have in order to 
master them. 

All preparation of spelling lessons was done dur- 
ing the class hour. The first two lessons the experi- 
M , f menter pronounced and spelled 

presentation orally, the class spelling orally 

an stu y and pronouncing after him. For 

the first lesson, sentences containing the words were 
used in the study, and for the second, definitions 
were given, but no words were used in sentences. 
The third lesson was pronounced and spelled Orally 
by the experimenter, and the pupils were told to 
study it as they pleased. All of them did as com- 
mon observation shows most pupils do when left 
to their own resources to prepare their spelling les- 
sons — they simply looked at the words on the board, 
and presumably "said them over to themselves." 
The content of the words was not referred to dur- 
ing this lesson. For the fourth and fifth lessons 
the pupils looked at the words and their definitions 
and heard them pronounced, but they were not 
asked to pronounce them themselves. They then 
wrote the words on the board, using those in the 
fourth lesson in sentences so far as time permitted. 
The words of the fifth lesson were not written in 
sentences. To sum up, the third lesson was a go- 
as-you-please one of the old type, while the other 
four were half of the contextual and half of the 
column type. Two of them were recited orally and 
two were written. 



So THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

Each lesson was written in a test the day after 
it was studied. The first lesson was written in sen- 
Methods of tences constructed by the class, 
recitation fo u t j-he other lessons were done 
in columns. This interval of a day between study- 
ing a lesson and reciting on it gave any well-defined 
errors a chance to ripen in consciousness for twenty- 
four hours before they were written ; though in the 
study of the four lessons supervised, all errors were 
instantly corrected. All the errors made in the 
written test on each lesson remained undisturbed 
for another twenty- four hours, or until the next 
day. In teaching the lesson, points which the ex- 
perimenter thought might prove difficult were 
stressed in various ways. A vertical line was 
drawn through words of the same "family" at the 
point where their likeness ceased, as inspir\e, in- 
spir | at ion ; mechan | ism, mechan \ ic. Double or silent 
letters or obscure vowels were underlined, as intelli- 
gence, courageous, infinite; and the difference in 
pronunciation and spelling of the first two syllables 
of such words as mechan\ical and machinist was 
emphasized. 

The next day after the test on each lesson, the 
boys were called on to spell orally the words they 
Methods of had missed. A tally was kept to 

correction show whether, when a word had 

been misspelled originally, the same incorrect form 
was given now, or a different one, or whether the 
correct spelling was given now or approved when 



THE LIFE HISTORY 51 

presented. Each word in its correct form was 
placed on the board by the experimenter before it 
was left for good. 

When the five lessons had thus been corrected, 
and it was determined to continue work at length 
on the difficult words instead of presenting new 
ones, the entire list was again written in columns 
without any further study. A very thorough re- 
view was then begun. The test papers were re- 
turned to the boys, and every word that had been 
missed by any one was written correctly on the 
board by all. Each word was now for the first time 
divided into syllables, all the boys showing some 
skill in this. Correct pronunciation of each word 
was required. The word was then written again 
in a sentence suggested by the class. Every boy 
was required to underline that part of any word 
in which his mistake had occurred. The whole list 
was next written in test for the third time. Only 
contextual spelling was attempted. The meaning 
of the words now seemed to be so clear to the class 
that in the next review-study there was no context- 
ual work. With their last papers in their hands, 
the boys took each word missed by them individ- 
ually, and wrote it on the board twice. If a word 
was not written correctly on the board and without 
much hesitation or apparent change of mind, the 
boy who was writing it continued his efforts until 
he could execute the whole word without a slip. 



52 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

After this the fourth and final test was made by 
writing the words again in sentences. 

Table III shows the general progress of the class 
from start to finish as gaged by the number of 
words missed on each test. 







TABLE III 








ISt 


2nd 


3rd 


4th 


Pupil 


test 


test 


test 


test 


A 


57 


37 


33 


11 


B 


34 


(absent) 


17 


C 


18* 


30 


24 


10 


D 


34 


36 


28 


11 



Barring B, who missed the second and third 
tests and all the training for them, the rank of the 
Capacity for other three continued the same 

improvement up to t h e last test. C had at 

the beginning a feeling of superiority, which de- 
clined as his fellows gained on him. Both C and 
D showed an actual loss from the first to the sec- 
ond test, but elsewhere there was a steady advance- 
ment. A showed the greatest capacity for improve- 
ment from intensive study of difficult words, and 
C showed the least. This is the inverse order of 
their abilities to spell in various tests which they 
took later on. 

The improvement occurred in two ways, — by the 



* For only four out of the five lessons. 



THE LIFE HISTORY 53 

gaining of new words and by the retention of those 
already spelled correctly. The latter shows great 
variation from pupil to pupil. Table IV indicates 
the number of words missed on any test, which had 
been spelled correctly on the preceding test. 





T 


ABU 


2 IV 


Pupil 
A 
B 
C 
D 


2nd 3rd 

test test 

2 6 

(absent) 

10 9 

9 8 


4th 
test 

6 

3 

1 


Total 

8 
(as against first test) 
22 
18 



The power of gaining new words and holding 
the old ones seemed to be correlated closely in this 
Learning and intensive training series. This 

retaining raises the question, often debated, 

as to whether the slowest learner is the best re- 
tainer. In another series of lessons, discussed from 
a different point of view in Chapter VI, very inten- 
sive training in spelling was given these same four 
subjects, with the result that there was practically 
perfect immediate recall of all words. But the 
course of lessons was extended until one hundred 
sixty words were presented. Without any recall 
one day of those missed the day before, and with 
a considerably longer time elapsing between the first 
(daily) test and the second (final) test, A showed 
his power plainly on the immediate daily recall, 



54 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

and was superior to all the others ; but on the final 
test, when the entire one hundred sixty words were 
written without review, he turned out to be the 
poorest retainer in the group. So it appears that 
A, the best retainer according to the test of the 
present chapter (as indicated by Table IV) is the 
poorest retainer in the experiment of Chapter VI. 
Evidently the different results in these tests are 
due to the different conditions of the two experi- 
ments. One set of conditions was just suited to 
A's type of mind, while the other was not. He 
illustrates a kind of pupil found in nearly every 
class, the kind of pupil whose diligence brings sat- 
isfactory, sometimes excellent, results in the daily 
work, but who "never does well on examinations." 
Students of this sort may correct any minor mis- 
statement of the teacher in the daily geography or 
history lesson, but show a woeful ignorance of the 
same and other much more vital points at the time 
of the monthly quiz. No answer as to the relation 
of learning and retaining appears possible, as long 
as we aim at a general formula that shall cover 
all conditions and cases. Generalizations of this 
character, as far as they relate to spelling, must 
be accompanied by a statement of the intensiveness 
of the study, the number of times of recall, and 
the time elapsing between tests. 

We may now look more closely into the question 
of the persistence of certain mistakes in spelling 



THE LIFE HISTORY 55 

Persistence ma ^e by this group of boys, 

of errors Most teachers doubtless have 

noted how a misspelling will crop out again and 
again in the work of a student, even though he may 
have been reminded repeatedly of his mistake. The 
same thing appears in the work of this group. In 
Table V, all errors have been tabulated for each 
individual so that a glance across the page will 
suggest how a pupil worked out a certain word, 
or at least attempted to do so, through the whole 
four tests. The notes of the experimenter made 
daily as to special difficulties served to verify the 
general conclusions drawn below. All blanks indi- 
cate correct spelling. Points of difficulty are itali- 
cized as far as possible. 



56 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



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THE LIFE HISTORY 5; 



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58 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



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THE LIFE HISTORY 59 







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6o THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



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THE LIFE HISTORY 61 



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62 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



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TABLE VI 




Total 


Identical 




number 


mistakes on 1st s 


Pupil 


misspelled 


4th tests 


A 


II 


2 


B 


II 


5 


C 


5 


4 


D 


10 


6 



THE LIFE HISTORY 63 

The tenacity with which special misspellings per- 
sist is evident from the following data relative to 
those words which were missed on both the first 
and the last tests. 



Different 

mistakes on 1st and 

4th tests 

9 
6 

1 
4 

Total.. 37 17 20 

Table VII, giving the results of the two inter- 
mediate tests while B was absent, shows further 
how misspellings tend to persist. 

TABLE VII 

A — 15 words twice, 3 in the same way, 12 differently 

A — 15 words three times, none in the same way, 15 differently 
A — 11 words four times, none in the same way, 11 differently 
C — 10 words twice, 5 in the same way, 5 differently 

C— 12 words three times, 5 in the same way, 7 differently 

C — 1 word four times, none in the same way, 1 differently 
D — 17 words twice, 5 in the same way, 12 differently 

D — 9 words three times, 4 in the same way, 5 differently 

D— 9 words four times, 5 in the same way, 4 differently 

Again, we may take only those words which were 
missed on the first test, spelled correctly on a sub- 



64 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

sequent test, and then lost again before the conclu- 
sion of the experiment. We may classify them ac- 
cording as the later misspelling was or was not a 
repetition of the first error. A's list of errors shows 
five such words, in only one of which the original 
error recurred; C's list shows five such words, in 
four of which the original error recurs; D's list 
shows a recurrence in one of three possible cases. 
This evidence seems to leave no doubt respecting 
the persistence of errors in spite of focalization up- 
on them, and reaction by the pupil in various ways 
calculated to eliminate them. A misspelling shows 
a tendency to recur even when the correct spelling 
has been gained, and it is usually the initial error 
in spelling a word that persists. 

The reader has probably noted that A's records 
do not agree in any large degree with those of the 

A other boys. The original errors 

An apparent ex- J & 

ception to the rule were not reproduced by A as f re- 
o persis ence quently as were certain subsequent 

ones. The reason for this is interesting. The ex- 
perimenter's diary shows that A was often unable 
to pronounce on one day what he had tried to spell 
the day before, that he gave very curious and erro- 
neous pronunciations of the real word, showing that 
he was guided very largely by the phonetic elements 
of what he had written, from which it is to be 
inferred that he spelled pretty accurately what he 
heard, but that he did not hear correctly. When 
one repeats an error, one does so because of one's 



THE LIFE HISTORY 65 

habit of response to a stimulus already experienced. 
But when a pupil has very little idea of the sound 
of a word the first time he meets it, but keeps 
on gradually working out the phonic elements of 
it until he gets the true pronunciation of it in mind, 
he is not subjected, as his learning proceeds, to 
the same stimulus when the word is pronounced for 
spelling. And so, if the stimulus has been changed, 
the response naturally is different. Now, a detailed 
study of A's lists shows just this general character- 
istic — a gradual growth toward the correct spelling. 
Some of the words which he never did get right 
were worked out of an unintelligible form into one 
where it is plain to see what he was driving at. 
Several words, such as sacrificial, influential and 
susceptible, were missed four successive times, but 
never in the same way. Rarely was there a word 
missed four times that was not nearer right at the 
finish than at the start. 

In the face of these facts it seems reasonable to 
conclude that if the original error in spelling can 
Why errors t> e avoided, much of the problem 

P ersist of acquiring correct spelling will 

be solved. But how may this be accomplished? 
Manifestly its accomplishment depends on an ap- 
preciation of the reasons for original errors, and 
for the persistence of errors. Obviously two fac- 
tors are of chief importance. First, there is the 
actual source of error, as discussed in the preceding 
chapter. Second, there is the "set" given by the 



66 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

graphic execution of an incorrect form. Teachers 
of drawing, instrumental music and penmanship 
attach importance to the persistence of motor habits ; 
instructors in physical training and successful 
coaches of athletics give much preliminary attention 
to "form." In the demand that pupils rewrite a 
specified number of times each word missed in spell- 
ing, some teachers have shown their belief in the 
permanence of impressions of hand-motor responses. 
But at best this latter type of work is a sort of 
locking the door after the theft has been committed. 
A few graphic or oral repetitions of the lesson in 
preparation are worth many repetitions after the 
harm is done. 

It is undoubtedly a mistake to permit a child to 
write a spelling lesson he has not prepared. In 
schools where there is no special time given for the 
preparation of the spelling lesson, or where in high 
schools the attainment of a certain grade in spell- 
ing for a term excuses a pupil from further pursuit 
of the branch, or in cases where the pupil is card 
less and receives no penalty for missing, except the. 
trifling one of writing the wrong words correctly 
below the lesson — under all such conditions there, 
are many who write without studying. Thus mis^ 
takes are made which a very little study would have 
prevented; and if they are not corrected until the 
next day, as often happens, there is incorporated 
in the nervous system a response it will take many 
times the energy to uproot that it would have taken 



THE LIFE HISTORY 67 

to get the thing right in the first place. No matter 
how long we may work on words once misspelled, 
we can hardly ever be sure that the fault will not 
return. So instead of refusing to let children write 
their spelling lessons because they have not the 
regulation blank or have forgotten pen or ink, we 
ought to apply a really fundamental test — "Have 
you faithfully studied this lesson?" — keeping in 
mind that while an unprepared pupil may possibly 
attend other recitations to his profit, he may par- 
ticipate in the written spelling class only to his own 
harm. 

The life history of a few individual words stud- 
ied throughout these tests may be indicative of the 
The life history factors entering into the spelling 
of certain words process. Two words, machinist 
and malignity } were never spelled correctly by any 
one on any test, though perhaps few adults would 
have designated them as the hardest of the list. 
Machinist showed persistence of errors with B and 
D, and identity of error twice between A and C. 
The skeleton m-ch-n-st was always retained except 
for A's peculiar mechanious, which appeared once. 
Though A and D made some progress, B and C 
did not. The three vowels, a, e and i, filled in the 
spaces in all sorts of ways. The obscurity of the 
vowels in the word prevented the proper arrange- 
ment of a and i. Doubtless e crept in because the 
word was taught as a member of the "family" of 
words starting with mech-; and as might have been 



68 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

expected, it appeared more frequently in the first 
syllable than elsewhere. 

The efforts to spell malignity showed but little more 
success than in the case of machinist. Great con- 
fusion arose because of malignancy, leading to the 
impression that the desired word was malignanty. 
There was a strong persistence of the original error 
with C and D; but A worked out everything cor- 
rectly except the first vowel, ending finally with 
melignity. It is interesting to note that he had to 
pass through the -nanty stage on the way. Here 
again it seems that the "family" grouping in the 
presentation of the words was more of a hindrance 
than a help. It is a well established principle in 
psychology that two associations interfere less with 
each other and are less likely to become confused, 
if one is thoroughly mastered first than if both are 
in the formative stage at the same time. If the 
acquisition of a word is accelerated by associating 
it with other members of its "family" when all 
are new, why should it not be after certain mem- 
bers of that "family" have become familiar? 

A few other illustrations will show more plainly 
the nature of the struggle which we are here con- 
sidering. Take the work of A on intelligible. His 
first rendering — intellegable — might have been ex- 
pected, considering the obscured vowels ; and it was 
so written a second time. Under instruction di- 
rected upon the points of difficulty, one of the 
vowels was fixed correctly, and v A wrote on the 



THE LIFE HISTORY 69 

third trial intelligeable. The troublesome e had 
been displaced, but not eliminated. The stress was 
now all shifted to the one point still needing change, 
and the boy next wrote intelligiable. The i had 
been forced in, the e forced out. Further instruc- 
tion would probably have eliminated the superfluous 
a. A greatly improved accessory on his second 
writing, and would have had it correct on his third 
trial, but one of his former difficulties returned, 
viz., the substitution of an s for a c. The last time 
he got rid of it again and held the rest securely. 
While C was casting out one error in ostensible a 
former one (substitution of c for s) returned. 

Such are the vicissitudes in the conquest of a 
hard word. The opposing forces sway back and 
forth much as two battle lines fighting for a stra- 
tegic point. Even if the teacher places equal stress 
on all parts of the word, the pupil will feel a par- 
ticular stress at the point of error. Adults feel 
some such stress for years after being checked up 
on a pronunciation, spelling, or date in history. 
This stress may be just sufficient to break the old 
association, or to establish the new one. In the 
first case, the incorrect letter goes out, and its place 
is left vacant, or more likely it is taken by some- 
thing that to the pupil seems probable, as in several 
of the spellings of machinist. This was C's state 
of mind when, in answer to a question regarding 
his mistake, he said, "I know zvhere it is, but I 
don't know what it ought to be." In the second 



7o THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

case, the proper letters are brought in, but the 
erroneous ones may not be eliminated, hence the 
former may be displaced considerably, and float 
around as it were, like p in A's spelling of suscepti- 
bility. His first three spellings of the second sylla- 
ble were -pect-, -cept- and -pet-, but on the last 
trial he had it correctly, -cept-, with all other mis- 
takes corrected at the same time. 

Two or three errors in a word are not likely to 
be worked out at one and the same time, for the 
Errors eliminated P^pil probably does not feel suf- 
one at a time ficient stress in two parts of a 

word of ordinary length* If a public speaker should 
emphasize every second or third word, proper em- 
phasis would be destroyed for his hearers. After 
a period of practise, the word may be written with 
improvement in some respect, and when the attack 
begins again the stress is no longer experienced at 
the old point. Yet when the word is written again 
and another error corrected, the former error may 
recur. It is always situated at the youngest and 
least stable part of the word-association, and may 
be expected to assert itself now and then. Such 
a recurrence should not be regarded as occasion 
for discouragement and censure; the error will be 
dispelled more easily this time than before, and it 
will be less likely to return. 

There may be designated then four principal 
stages in the mastery of a word, instead of the two 



THE LIFE HISTORY 71- 

Four stages in usually distinguished,— right and 
word mastery wrong. First, there is the stage 

in which a word may be classed as well estab- 
lished incorrectly. This is by far the most serious 
stage. The pupil invariably uses the same misspell- 
ing; and the first sign of improvement dates from 
the moment when the misspellings begin to vary. 
The word is now in the second stage, and may be 
said to be partially established incorrectly. In 
the face of further treatment a casual right spelling 
may appear, but it may quickly disappear. The 
third stage has now been reached, and the word is 
imperfectly mastered correctly. Additional practise 
will lead to the fourth stage — well mastered cor- 
rectly. Lapses then rarely occur. All children do 
not pass through all these stages with reference to 
every word they can spell. Most people never ex- 
hibit the worst stage (well established incorrectly) 
except with reference to a few words. Prolonged 
practise between tests may even cause a certain 
stage to be skipped as far as can be seen. The ad- 
vantage of such an analysis is that it indicates what 
teachers may expect from exceptionally poor spel- 
lers, or from any who have made a bad start with 
certain words. This sort of clinical practise can 
be greatly diminished through improved technique 
of presentation, and more accurate grading of 
words. Then the weeds of original error will not 
be permitted to grow so rank. 



7^ THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

There is need before this subject is left to take 
some account of a phrase which teachers use very 
When is a freely, viz., the "mastery of a 

word mastered? word" (in the sense of spelling, 
of course). It would be better if we interpreted 
this expression in a relative rather than in an ab- 
solute sense. Most adults have had the experience 
of forgetting or becoming uncertain of the spelling 
of a word, which for years has been perfectly under 
command. This happens with simple and common, 
as well as with complex and uncommon words. 
Such evidence, together with the tests described in 
this chapter and in the next, and the experience of 
every teacher, indicates that we do not know just 
when a child has fully mastered a difficult word, 
so that it will always abide with him. But happily 
we can generally tell when he is making progress 
in its mastery. 

In this connection it may be noted that mastery 
of a word may be more complete and lasting in one 
"modality" than in another. To illustrate: one of 
the writers has the experience that under condi- 
tions of fatigue he sometimes loses confidence in the 
writing of certain words; but if he spells them 
aloud, so that vocal and auditory familiarity are 
brought in, he never fails to recall immediately the 
correct spelling. Ordinarily there is no hesitation 
in deciding whether or not words are spelled cor- 
rectly by the way they look, or feel in writing; but 
mastery in these modes is less permanent than in 



THE LIFE HISTORY 73 

the vocal and auditory modes. But with some per- 
sons it appears to be just the other way; they rely 
in times of doubt or stress upon visual or graphic 
rather than upon auditory or vocal familiarity. 
Still other persons who have been questioned in re- 
gard to the matter by one of the writers declare that 
one mode is not more secure or reliable than an- 
other; uncertainty as to the writing of a word is 
not relieved by spelling it vocally, or vice versa. 
Probably people differ in this respect according as 
they are predominantly of the visual or auditory or 
motor-graphic or motor-vocal type, or as they have 
through early training and use come to rely mainly 
upon one mode or another in spelling. 



CHAPTER V 

COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXTUAL SPELLING 

THE second experiment carried on with the 
four boys already mentioned was undertaken 
in the hope of gaining some data bearing on the 
Material and problem of the outcome of spell- 

subjects m g j n sentences as compared with 

spelling isolated words. Some easy portions of 
Robinson Crusoe were dictated, and the boys were 
asked to copy them. Two days after this dictation 
work, the group was given a column test based on 
the dictated material. Reversing the process, a test 
was given on isolated words selected from an ac- 
count of the Chicago fire. This was followed a 
couple of days afterward by the dictation of an 
account of the fire. 

The words seemed simple enough, so that pupils 
of grammar-school grade should be familiar with 
Difficulties of them, yet there were a number in 

the plan both selections that appeared 

strange to all members of the class. They indicated 
this by asking, for instance — "Is the word 'desper- 

74 



COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXT 75 

ate'?" — or by requesting the experimenter to "say 
it slow." The latter tried his best to give the con- 
ventional pronunciation, speaking all words plainly 
and with moderate speed. In the column tests, it 
was necessary to insure that the pupils understood 
the words by having them defined, giving their 
opposites, or illustrating their use with a brief sen- 
tence. The purpose kept in mind in this work was 
to determine ( 1 ) whether words might be spelled 
correctly in column and missed when used in sen- 
tences, or vice versa; and (2) whether the boys ex- 
perienced greater difficulty with one kind of spell- 
ing than with another. Much interest has been 
taken in these problems during the last few years, 
and many persons have freely expressed their opin- 
ions regarding them; but so far as the writers are 
aware, no tests have heretofore been made to get 
precise data bearing upon the problems. 

About sixty words were taken for the column 
test each time, while the dictated selections included 
about three hundred twenty-five words each. The 
spellings given in Table VIII include only those 
words of the column test which were missed by 
some one either in column or dictation. All other 
words are omitted to save space. Blanks denote 
correct spellings. For the guidance of the reader, 
the true word is sometimes inserted in parentheses 
to aid in identifying the misspelling. 



7 6 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



s 

s 

< 
H 
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5 3 

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COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXT 77 

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7 8 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



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COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXT 79 

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8o THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

The errors given above have been tabulated in 
Table IX. The columns are headed in Roman nu- 
merals, Column I including those words which a sub- 
ject misspelled in the same manner on both column 
and dictation tests. Column II includes words 
spelled differently in the two tests, but missed in 
both. Column III shows words spelled rightly in 
the dictation test, but wrongly in the column test, 
while Column IV presents just the opposite record, 
i. e., the number wrong in dictation but right in 
column. So Column III shows cases of apparent 
superiority of the dictation method, while Column 
IV shows cases of apparent superiority of the col- 
umn method. In the last two columns have been 
noted the number of words which, right in one 
test, were wrong in the other, the mistake consisting 
of the omission of a single letter. The presumption 
is that nearly all of those in Columns V and VI 
show a mere lapse, not genuine misspelling. Col- 
umn V gives those right in dictation but wrong in 
column, Column VI gives those wrong in dictation 
but right in column. 

Each figure in the first column exceeds the corre- 
sponding one in the second, except for pupil A, 
who reverses this order for both selections. Slightly 
more than half of the one hundred three words 
missed in both column and dictation were repeated 
errors ; and if A's record be ignored, over two -thirds 
were repetitions. 

In only one case is a figure in Column III larger 



COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXT 81 
TABLE IX 



Pupil and Selection 


I 


ll 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


A.— Robinson Crusoe 

Chicago Fire 


4 
11 


17 
16 


5 
6 


9 
10 


i 


3 
1 


B. — Robinson Crusoe 

Chicago Fire 


5 
10 


4 
2 


o 
o 

3 


8 
3 


i 


4 

2 


C. — Robinson Crusoe 

Chicago Fire 


4 
5 


2 
2 


1 
3 


5 
11 


2 


3 
3 


D. — Robinson Crusoe 

Chicago Fire 


5 
9 


3 

4 


7 
8 


11 
5 


2 
4 


2 
1 






Totals 


53 


50 


36 


62 


10 


, 


Subtracting Columns V and 
III and IV respectively 


VI fi- 


Dm 


10 


19 












26 


43 







Two methods of 
measuring loss 
by transfer 



than the corresponding figure in Column IV. The 
first impression made in reviewing 
these results is that the tendency 
to miss words in column which 
were right in dictation is to the tendency to do the 
reverse as 36 to 62. Thus column spelling appears 
to have an advantage as to accuracy. But the words 
in Columns V and VI should first be subtracted from 
the totals of Columns III and IV respectively be- 
fore we may say that we have any real measure of 
the tendency of actual errors to be committed. 
The standard of spelling on the whole seems to 
have been influenced somewhat by the change from 



82 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

contextual to isolated spelling. This is most truly 
represented by the difference between twenty-six 
and forty-three, or seventeen words. This difference 
of seventeen words is what we may call the actual 
loss in efficiency, which, when compared with the 
total number of test words, sixty for each selection, 
or four hundred eighty for all the group, is three 
and fifty- four hundredths per cent. Or we may 
measure the same thing by another criterion. If the 
loss is seventeen words, there has been an increase 
of about ten per cent, in the frequency of errors, 
since the total number of words missed by all the 
class was one hundred seventy-two. 

The data presented thus far would be held by 
many as illustrative of the principle that a word 
The conventional spelled in column may be more or 
conclusion j ess use less in actual writing, and 

that therefore the formal spelling of isolated words 
does not insure their correct spelling when the child 
tries to use them in expressing his thoughts. Those 
taking this view would insist that the difference 
in the two situations, one of them formal, the other 
dynamic, is so wide that transfer can not take place. 

It may with equal validity be urged that the con- 
text dictated to a child may be just as formal as 
Genuine dynamic tne words taken from it and 
spelling spelled in column, and that the 

situation becomes dynamic only when he writes to 
express himself. Special effort was made in the ex- 
periment just described to choose material that 



COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXT 83 

would be appreciated by the group, but A showed 
by what he said that the writing of the dictation 
was for him a "grind," and the reactions of the 
others indicated that they regarded it in the same 
light. For this reason another test was planned. 

After a period of seven weeks during which the 
group had not met with the experimenter, two of 
them, C and D, were secured for a series of exer- 
cises. To throw them off their guard, it was ex- 
plained that the old matter of spelling would be 
laid aside, and attention would be given to facility 
of expression. Subjects for composition were as- 
signed and outlined somewhat in detail. Both boys 
expressed themselves as better able to write on the 
topics presented than on anything they could sug- 
gest. Then they were allowed a certain amount 
of time, and told to write as easily and rapidly as 
possible. When the papers were received, lists of 
words misspelled were selected from them, and 
others correctly spelled were added to such lists. 
These were spelled in column, with the explicit 
statement that while some of them had been missed 
in the compositions, others had not. Table X shows 
misspellings taken from the themes of C and D 
on six different subjects (totaling nine hundred 
one and fifteen hundred ninety-two running words 
respectively), and the subsequent column tests based 
on the themes. All words passing from right on 
one test to wrong on the other by the omission 
of a single letter or the substitution of n for m, are 



84 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

italicized, to indicate mere lapse rather than genuine 
error as the probable cause of the trouble. 





TABLE X 






PUPIL C 




Composition. 




Column. 


launchs 


r ( launches)" 




fishs 


(fishes) 




minows 


(minnowsj 




inchs 


(inches) 




pricaple 


(principle J 




companys 


,( companies) 1 




sledes 


(sleds) 




bubles 


(bubbles) 




tzvards 


(towards) 




succesful 


(successful) 


succesful 


hocky 


(hockey) 


hocky 


frezes 


(freezes) 


frezes 


thich 


'(thick) 


thich 


all ready 


(already) 




birth 


(berth) 




bigest 


(biggest) 1 ^ 


bigest 




l( steamers y 


steammers 




(pickerel) 


pickeral 




[(minutes ) 


minites 




PUPIL D 




Composition. 




Column. 


tipy 


'(tippy? 




peir 


(pier) 




minnoe 


( minnow J 


minoe 


too 


:(to) 





COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXT 



Composition. 




Column. 


tobogan 


(toboggan) 


tobogan 


bottum 


(bottom) 




freazes 


(freezes) 




fruquently 


i( frequently) 




amunition 


(ammunition) 


amunition 


(ruble 


(trouble) 




throwen 


(thrown) 




squarly 


(squarely) 


squarly 


deceve 


(deceive) 




afread 


(afraid) 


afread 


excitting 


(exciting) 


excitting 


sloped 


(stopped) 




veiw 


(view) 




pickeral 


(pickerel) 




acrouse 


(across) 


acrouse 


swiming 


i( swimming) 




universitty 


(university) 




slott 


(slot) 




minuetes 


(minutes) 




interurbeen 


i(interurban) 


intererban 


tellephoned 


{telephoned) 


telaphoned 


domb 


(dome) 






.(smooth) 


sm.oth 




(courses) 


coarces 




;( commonly) 


connonly 




(steered) 


steared 




(angleworm) 


anglezvorn 




(either) 


earther 




(railing) 


railling 




(squirt) 


squrt 




(firecrackers) 


firecrakers 




(following) 


fowlling 



Summarizing the data of Table X we have Table 



86 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

XL The Roman numerals at the heads of the col- 
umns have the same significance as they did in 
Table IX. 

TABLE XI 



Pupil 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


C 


5 
6 


....... 


3 

10 


11 
17 


....... 


6 


D 


5 






Totals 


11 


3 


13 
5 


28 
11 


5 


11 


Subtracting Column 
from III and IV i 


s V an 
espect 


d VI 
ively 




8 


17 





C shows a difference of two words against the 
transfer of column to contextual spelling in a vo- 
cabulary of two hundred sixty-three words and a 
total of nine hundred one running words of com- 
position; D shows a similar difference of seven 
words in a vocabulary of three hundred ninety- 
three occurring in a total of fifteen hundred ninety- 
two running words of composition. The very small 
loss in transfer by C on this test is due to his 
great care in composition, and the fact that he is 
always much more careful than D in his spelling. 
The decrease in frequency of errors in column over 
contextual writing, as derived from Table XI, is 
twenty- four per cent., counting no word twice for 
the same individual, a method of figuring which 
gave slightly under ten per cent, in the earlier ex- 



COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXT 87 

periment with the four subjects (see Table IX). 
The loss in efficiency, nine words, as compared with 
the total number of test words — fifty-five — is six- 
teen per cent, as against three and fifty-four hun- 
dredths per cent, in the former experiment. The 
smaller figures for the first experiment are doubt- 
less the result of the formal character of material 
dictated by the teacher. The writers would insist 
that the figures for the later experiment reflect more 
nearly the actual difference between the formal sit- 
uation in column spelling and the dynamic situation 
in ordinary written expression. 

The cause of this loss in transfer is the next 
thing that must engage our attention. If the two 
Dispersion of activities — isolated as contrasted 

attention w j t j 1 contextual spelling — be ana- 

lyzed, certain differences appear. In the case of 
the former, the attention is concentrated on a few 
words, while in the latter it is distributed over a 
much larger number. Hence we should expect the 
mistakes to be increased in contextual writing. 
Suppose a boy can repeat perfectly the addition 
and multiplication tables. No one doubts that if 
he is required to multiply, for example, thirteen 
by twenty- four he will be more likely to give a 
correct answer than if he tries to add thirteen twen- 
ty-fours together. The processes in the last prob- 
lem may not from one point of view be more diffi- 
cult than those of the first, but the attention is 
distributed over a larger area, or rather is acting 



88 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

for a longer* time; hence the possibilities of its 
wandering are increased. So in the problem of 
spelling before us — the attention is not only called 
to a larger number of words; it is directed to the 
maintenance of a proper order of the words. They 
are dictated, by another or mentally by the subject, 
in groups, and the entire remainder of each group 
must be carried in consciousness while any word 
of such group is being written. Then there is the 
matter of punctuation and capitalization to be cared 
for. Further, the context is likely to present a 
line of thought to the pupil, and this may distract 
his attention. The greater rapidity of writing in 
ordinary dictated exercises also prevents the review 
of each word immediately after it is written, though 
such a practise is possible and customary, in column 
writing. 

But if a child is to spell correctly in his con- 
textual writing, and at the same time execute suc- 
Relative automa- cess fully all these other matters, 
tism in spelling j t } s neC essary that many of the 
processes should become relatively automatic. 
Otherwise he will never acquire sufficient facility 
in these operations to meet properly the demands 
of later life. Let us waive all academic discussion 
of the question of complete automatism in spelling, 
for its existence is disproved by the constant oc- 
currence of lapses in the writing of all sorts of 
people. The matter of prime concern to teachers 
is the method by which the novice may be made 



COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXT 89 

to pass from his habit of giving attention to the 
elements of words to the point where the formal 
processes in writing no longer occupy a focal posi- 
tion in consciousness. 

Since the learner can apprehend visually a larger 
unit than he can execute mechanically, the sentence 

Automatic execu- method ' thou S h applicable in 
tion of the literal teaching reading, would be ut- 
elements terfy unsuited to a child in his 

writing. He begins by executing only the very 
shortest and simplest words, or even more fre- 
quently the isolated letters. But modern educa- 
tional theory maintains that in teaching writing we 
should begin with the largest unit that can be ex- 
ecuted effectively, so that an analysis of letters into 
their component parts should follow rather than 
precede the writing of the letter as a whole. Thus 
it comes about that the mere thought of a letter 
will call forth its complete execution much sooner 
than could possibly be the case if the elements of 
the letter were first mastered in isolation and then 
combined. 

While the pupil is gaining this facility prerequi- 
site to written spelling, he has supposedly been ac- 
Oral spell- quiring a fairly ready command 

ing first f the literal elements of many 

short words by means of oral spelling. This 
knowledge should come through practise on the 
words as wholes, with only minor emphasis on syl- 
labic elements of words of more than one syllable. 



9 o THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

Some teachers insist on keeping the written spelling 
up with the oral spelling from the start, but the 
possibility of such procedure is somewhat doubtful, 
and its economy is still more so. 

When the new problem arises of combining oral 
knowledge and graphic knowledge into successful 
Automatic control written spelling, there will be for 
of larger units a t} me considerable hesitation 
and a profusion of errors. Teachers now need 
to be both painstaking and patient. Work of 
a contextual character, however, must soon be- 
gin, or the child will not come upon the neces- 
sity of thinking in larger units than single 
words. In fact, some persons grow up unable 
to compose and write at the same time with 
any degree of effectiveness, and a major reason 
for such an unhappy condition is probably the 
fact that they were not put to the preparation 
of free spontaneous composition at a sufficiently 
early age. Nevertheless, throughout the period 
when the pupil spells mainly in written composition 
new words should first be introduced separately in 
order to secure some degree of familiarity with 
them. Even adults who have become highly profi- 
cient in written expression must usually consider a 
new word carefully before they can run it off easily 
in their writing. The same principle must be eco- 
nomical as well as psychological for a child. At the 
same time, it should be said that only by building 



COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXT 91 

up in the child practically automatic series of the 

greatest possible length can we release consciousness 

for the performance of functions that never can 

become automatic. 

Before closing this sketch of the development of 

habit in spelling, we should perhaps observe that 

Universality of the principles mentioned apply in 
the principle manv fi e id s f wor ^ As the 

eye of the musician becomes trained, it takes 
in a constantly increasing number of notes at a 
single "pulse" of attention. The typist progresses 
from a mastery of literal, through syllabic and 
verbal, to phrase unities. But the evidence gained 
from the learning of telegraphy is the most con- 
crete and convincing of all. The curve of improve- 
ment of students of this art and their personal tes- 
timony as regards both sending and receiving, show 
that the succession of clicks which indicate a letter 
is at first their problem. Later, they begin to think 
of the word transmitted. Finally they send and 
interpret in phrases, and cease to attend to separate 
clicks. Moreover, between each of these stages 
there is almost invariably a more or less extended 
period of no apparent improvement. 

To resume — in the matter of the difference in 
efficiency between contextual and isolated spelling, 
Lack of transfer it is apparent that a pupil will 
unavoidable generally spell more accurately in 

column, even though his entire training has been 



92 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

on contextual spelling. Spelling of long and diffi- 
cult words especially demands so much conscious 
attention that in the third stage of mastery they 
will be executed incorrectly more often in context- 
ual than in column spelling; while the number of 
lapses in words in the fourth stage of mastery will 
always be greater in the former than in the latter 
mode of spelling. 

Since spelling is not usually recognized as a stan- 
dard high-school subject, and since many defective 

, . spellers are annually promoted 

Conclusion 

into our high schools, it has be- 
come customary to give all freshmen a spelling test 
(in column, of course) at the earliest practicable 
date. Those who are not able to make a certain 
grade on this test are assigned to the "spelling 
hospital," as some have termed it, where they lan- 
guish until they prove able to meet certain require- 
ments. The most common prerequisite for discharge 
from the "hospital" is the attainment of a certain 
grade in the spelling lessons for the term. Colleges 
and universities very often honor similar customs 
by observing them. Promotions from year to year 
in the elementary school depend on the "averages" 
shown by the "spelling blank" and possibly the pass- 
ing of the "final," which consists of fifty to a 
hundred words. A better method would be to base 
decisions in these matters on the showing a student 
makes in the written papers he submits in all his 



COLUMN VERSUS CONTEXT 93 

work. It will be granted certainly that the proof 
of spelling efficiency is found in correct writing 
of words in their usual contextual relation. Words 
should not be left until this can be done; it is the 
clenching of the whole process. 



CHAPTER VI 

METHODS OF PRESENTATION 

VARIOUS studies have recently been made by 
American, French and German psychologists 
of the relation between presentation and memoriza- 
Variance of tion.* All sorts of materials have 

opinions b een use( j # Most of the tests 

have been made on only a few subjects, and the 
conclusions have been conflicting to some extent. 
This might have been predicted for several reasons. 
Learning to spell involves association between 
sounds and letters in all the phonetic combinations; 
second, it involves pure memorizing in the case of 
non-phonetic combinations, such as those containing 
silent letters or elided vowels; third, it involves 
relatively permanent retention, which is a very dif- 
ferent thing from immediate recall in all learning 
processes, as was seen in a discussion of this mat- 
ter in Chapter IV. The different experimenters 
have used materials which varied in these respects. 
If the foreign pronunciation is used, learning to 

* The work in this field has been reviewed by Henmon, The 
Relation Between Mode of Presentation and Retention, Psy- 
chological Review, XIX, 79-96. See also Burnham, The 
Hygiene and Psychology of Spelling, Pedagogical Seminary, 
XIII, 474. 

94 



METHODS OF PRESENTATION 95 

spell foreign words evidently violates the rules of 
phonics already familiar to the pupil; but if he be 
permitted to formulate his own rules of phonics 
for an exercise, the non-phonetic element disappears, 
thus introducing a wholly artificial situation as far 
as English spelling is concerned. Nonsense sylla- 
bles are all phonetic, and nouns and numbers are 
learned without the operation of the phonic element, 
the associations consisting of quite vivid imagery 
entirely aside from the visual form or the sound 
of the words memorized. Then, too, many of the 
experimenters measured only immediate recall. 
While all of these activities are more or less similar 
to spelling, none of them, therefore, is spelling. 

The study of this problem, as stated in Chapter 
IV, was the first one designed to be taken up with 

„ . , the group of four pupils men- 

Plan of the work . , , -^ . , r 

tioned above. But since the first 

experiment developed in another direction, it now 
became necessary to plan a new start. The third 
experiment with the boys is representative of the 
type of work that must be done over and over 
again in order to answer the question of retention 
and recall as related to mode of presentation in 
spelling. A series of sixteen lessons was given by 
four different methods, each method being employed 
four times. The four types of presentation oc- 
curred in an invariable order, so that no particular 
type came always on the same day of the week. 
Absence of one pupil or another resulted in ex- 



96 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

tending the sixteen lessons over twenty- four school- 
days. The lesson studied each day was written 
at the close of that day's exercise, and mistakes 
were corrected before adjournment. The ordinary 
period for studying and writing a lesson was be- 
tween twenty-five and thirty minutes. The words 
were selected just as they came in a certain mod- 
ern speller. On the eleventh and twelfth days after 
the last lesson was presented, the whole list was 
spelled in column. 

The ten words for each day were always written 
on the board in syllables, and with the accent 
Four types of marked ; a brief definition was 

presentation p U £ a fter each; the experimenter 

pronounced the list, and had each boy pronounce 
it after him. So far all lessons were uniform in 
presentation, but thereafter they began to diverge. 
On one day the boys wrote at the board, while the 
next day they memorized the words at their seats ; 
This method gave an opportunity to test graphic 
versus oral methods of study. Then for half of 
the lessons studied both graphically and orally, the 
words were written or spoken in sentences only, 
and so written on the test at the close of the hour. 
During the rest of the time isolated words were 
studied, and they were written in column as the 
test for the day. So the four types of study might 
be termed graphic-contextual, graphic-column, oral- 
contextual and oral-column. The class was not so 
well pleased with the contextual as with the column^ 



METHODS OF PRESENTATION 97 

lessons. Often they would ask — "We don't have 
to write them in sentences to-day, do we?" The 
contextual work seemed to conflict with their idea 
of studying spelling, and there is no doubt it ran 
in opposition to their school "spelling habit." Con- 
sequently a boy would sometimes be observed prac- 
tising on the test word contained in a given sen- 
tence, instead of writing the sentences as given him. 
The boys' dislike for this sort of work made the 
experimenter feel that the contextual method did 
not get a fair trial. This shows, for one thing, 
how wide is the gap in the mind of the typical boy 
between learning and using spelling. 

In Table XII is shown the number of errors on 
both the daily tests and the final test. 

TABLE XII 

DAILY TESTS 

Lesson type Lesson type 

Graphic Oral 
Contextual Column Contextual Column Total 

Pupil A 3 .. .. .. 3 

Pupil B 6 . . 5 1 12 

Pupil C 1 .. 2 2 5 

Pupil D 4 .. 1 .. 5 

Total 14 8 3 25 

FINAL TEST 

Pupil A 24 31 25 19 99 

Pupil B 9 8 12 12 41 

Pupil C 6 11 6 10 33 

Pupil D 9 12 11 10 42 

Total ..... 48 62 54 51 215 



9 8 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

The astonishing increase of errors on the final 
test may be thought to demonstrate that all the 
Effectiveness of teaching had been ineffective. It 
the training mav b e sa id t hat the group if 

given the final test without preliminary training 
would scarcely have missed a greater proportion of 
the one hundred sixty words. But there are at least 
two reasons for believing that the training had a 
beneficial effect. In the first place, a large number 
of words shown by the experimenter's diary to have 
given trouble in the daily study were spelled cor- 
rectly on the daily tests, and many of them were still 
spelled correctly on the final test. The influence of 
the immediate correction of errors also was evident, 
since of the twenty-five words missed on the daily 
tests only fifteen were missed by the same persons on 
the final test, and of these fifteen only one was mis- 
spelled the same way both times. 

Comparing now the results of daily and final tests, 
we find that the efficiency of the different types of 
Comparison presentation in the daily tests is 

of methods almost exactly the reverse of that 

in the final test. The graphic-contextual type 
changes from fourth to first place, and the graphic- 
oral from first to fourth place. In the daily tests 
the contextual appears inferior to the column 
method in the ratio of twenty-two to three errors. 
But this large number of errors in the graphic- 
contextual and oral-contextual should hardly be re- 
garded as the inevitable accompaniment of context- 



METHODS OF PRESENTATION 99 

ual spelling, because no such striking relation was 
shown in the experiments described in the previous 
chapter, and because the class recognized clearly 
in the context the words on which they had been 
drilled, and doubtless wrote them with all the care 
usually taken with words in isolation. Their care- 
lessness in the study of the contextual lesson must 
have been the cause of the errors. However, on 
the final test the contextual presentation was slightly 
superior. 

The reason for the "slump" on the final test is 
not far to seek. It seems plain that intensive study 
of ten fairly difficult words, terminating in prac- 
tically perfect immediate recall, is no criterion of 
real learning for spelling purposes. The pupil holds 
the words for the moment almost as in a memory 
span, and is tested on his receptivity rather than 
his retentivity. Yet a large part of all spelling 
work in the schools is apparently of this snap-shot 
order. Thus the boy A is an excellent speller in 
the spelling class, but not elsewhere. All the ex- 
periments show it, and his teacher confirms it.* 
The other boys show the same tendency, but not 
so markedly. Two weeks seem a sufficiently long 
period for pupils to lose a spelling lesson as fully 



*One of the writers often thinks of the German girl in a 
district school who exceeded him in "headmarks" in the 
course of the term. But on examination day his turn came. 
The artificial daily superiority of his competitor had vanished, 
and he counted two or three "headmarks" in a single recita- 
tion while she shed bitter tears. 



ioo THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

as they are likely to lose it in a much longer time. 
Such a view is upheld by the division of the lessons 
shown in Table XIII, in which it is shown that 
the final test occurred from forty-five to forty-nine 
days after the original presentation of lessons one to 
four inclusive, and of the forty words comprising 
those four lessons, A missed twenty-seven on the 
final test, B missed ten, etc. ; and so on with all the 
lessons : 

TABLE XIII 



LESSONS 


Days be- 
tween lesson 
and final test 


Errors 




A 


B | C 


D 


Total 


1- 4 inclusive 

5- 8 inclusive 

9-12 inclusive 

13-16 inclusive 

1- 8 inclusive 

9-16 inclusive 


45-49 
28 - 35 
21-28 
12-19 
28-49 
12-28 


27 
31 

18 
23 
58 
41 


10 
13 

12 
6 

23 
18 


7 
7 

13 
6 

14 
19 


6 
14 
11 
11 
20 
22 


50 

65 

54 

46 

115 

100 



It is evident that the method of presentation is 
not the determining factor, but that it is subordi- 
nate to the vital element of time. This problem 
is doubtless to be solved by the proper use of the 
review. 

The oral presentation showed temporary results 

in its favor, and retained on the final count also the 

_ . slender advantage of one hundred 

Processes in & 

graphic and five to one hundred ten. But an 

analysis of results indicates that 

the superiority of the oral over the graphic is an in- 



METHODS OF PRESENTATION 101 

dividual matter rather than a general one. For A the 
oral is far better ; for B the graphic clearly excels ; 
for C and D there seems to be no choice. This 
does not consider the visual element; for provided 
the study is from script, the visual factor is the 
same in both cases. The contrast is between two 
types of motor activity, the hand-motor and the 
articulatory, though the auditory element is neces- 
sarily involved in oral spelling. Some children, 
however, spell almost constantly with their lips 
while writing, even when, for purposes of experi- 
ment, they are forbidden to do so. B does this 
a great deal. That there may be so small a dif- 
ference between the actual processes in oral and 
written spelling has not been generally recognized. 
All investigations of absolutely pure types of pres- 
entation have interest only for the psychologist; 
for the teacher they have little significance, since 
apparently no child will ever use a pure type in 
study unless blindfolded, bound or gagged. 

The point that has been urged in favor of the 
oral method is the fact that an error is detected 
Advantages of as soon as made, a point which 

each method our discussion thus far has more 

than once emphasized. This advantage can not be 
gained in written spelling except when there is ade- 
quate and careful supervision of study. We have 
already said, however, that written spelling is the 
final test of spelling efficiency, and it is certain that 
there is not full transfer from oral to written 



102 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

ability to spell. It may further be said to ,the disad- 
vantage of oral spelling that it confines the pupil 
practically to the column as against the contextual 
method. 

It should not be forgotten that in neither the 
graphic nor the oral methods of teaching spelling is 
Showing a pupil ^ certain that a child will on his 
his error own initiative become conscious of 

his errors and remove them. The boys in these ex- 
periments proved this repeatedly. When one boy 
misspelled a word orally and another spelled it cor- 
rectly after him, the first often could not state 
what his error was or even where it was. When 
one on being asked to respell a word missed at 
first spelled it correctly, he could not tell what was 
the trouble with his first spelling. When a word 
was written incorrectly, by accident perhaps, and 
the writer of it and others who had written it cor- 
rectly were called upon to locate the error, they 
were exceedingly slow in finding it, or they failed 
altogether. This was probably due to the fact that 
they examined the word as a whole, just as adults 
do in reading. 

The only sure way for a pupil to correct an error 
is for him to do the thing himself, under guidance 
when necessary. Too much of our attempted cor- 
rection of spelling errors has been based on the as- 
sumption that one pupil, or perhaps the teacher, can 
correct the errors of another pupil. One can correct 
only one's own errors, not those of another. In writ- 



METHODS OF PRESENTATION 103 

ten spelling, teachers ought to require that each 
pupil should correct his own error by rewriting the 
word correctly from the first. Errors in oral spell- 
ing must be treated in the same way. Pupils, too, 
should always show where their errors lie; but it 
is not insisted that they should reproduce the in- 
correct forms. By the exercise of care in certain 
directions, it should be possible to utilize oral spell- 
ing occasionally all the way up through, the grades. 
It may release erroneous associations without de- 
lay, break the monotony of the written lesson, and 
become a device for the arousing of some healthy 
rivalry of a kind that does not always impress one 
as he views the class writing its lesson. 



CHAPTER VII 

SPELLING EFFICIENCY AND COMPOSITION 

IT has been more or less generally believed that 
spelling ability bears a direct relation to the 
quality and the quantity of one's writing. To 
ascertain the relation between spelling and com- 
position, a concluding experiment was undertaken 
with C and D. Facility in composition was held 
out as the aim of the work, in order to insure free- 
dom on the part of the boys, and to eliminate the 
effect which the personality of the experimenter 
might have on the subjects' consciousness of spell- 
ing. 

For eight days the boys were met a half-hour 
each morning, and six compositions were prepared, 
Plan of the the topics being "Boating on Lake 

work Mendota," "Fishing Around 

Madison," "Coasting in Our Town," "Other Win- 
ter Sports" (principally skating, snowballing and 
hockey), "How I Spent the Fourth" (of July), 
and "Our Trip to Colorado." These boys had 
grown up in the hilly city of Madison, which is 
surrounded by lakes; their own home is on the 
shore of Lake Mendota; and their experiences had 

104 



COMPOSITION 105 

been much the same. The composition on the 
"Fourth" was written July tenth, so all details were 
still fresh in their minds. The trip to Colorado 
had been taken by both boys together the preceding 
summer. Each boy said more than once that his 
subject was larger than he could exhaust in the 
given time. To reduce the delay in getting started 
in writing, and to increase spontaneity, there was 
a brief discussion of each topic in advance; and 
this resulted in a short outline being placed on the 
board. To illustrate: in the first composition the 
writers were urged to put themselves in the place 
of a boy living in a flat prairie country at a distance 
from any body of water, except the creek or com- 
munity "swimming hole," and to describe all those 
things very familiar to them, but new and interest- 
ing to the imaginary correspondent. They were 
directed also to describe the different kinds of boats 
on Mendota, the structure and motive power, and 
the advantages and disadvantages of each for spe- 
cial purposes. 

The following tables show certain facts with re- 
gard to the six compositions. In the first two col- 
The data umns of Table XIV are given the 

gathered t f a j num ber of words in each 

composition. In the second two appear the addi- 
tions to the vocabulary previously employed by each 
writer in this series of compositions. Columns V 
and VI were secured by dividing Columns III and 
IV by Columns I and II respectively, and multiply- 



106 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

ing the result by one hundred. Thus they represent 
the addition per hundred running words of com- 
position to the vocabulary previously used in this 
series. The top figure in Columns III- VI inclusive 
is high, of course, because no words whatever are 
left out of consideration. In the other figures the 
common words already used are eliminated, and the 
effect is steadily intensified. 

TABLE XIV 

AMOUNT OF COMPOSITION VERSUS BREADTH OF 
VOCABULARY 



Composition 


Running words 


Addition to vocab- 
ulary previously 
employed 


Addition per 100 run- 
ning words to vocab. 
previously employed 




C | D 


C 


D 


C 


D 


First 

Second . . . 

Third 

Fourth*... 

Fifth 

Sixth* .... 


141 
127 
137 
181 
116 
199 


199 
132 
143 
370 
327 
421 


66 
43 
28 
52 
37 
37 


77 
42 
38 
92 
67 
77 


47 
34 
20 
29 
32 
19 


39 
32 
27 
25 
20 
18 


Total... 


901 


1592 


263 


393 


29 


25 



In Table XV an attempt has been made to com- 
pare accuracy in writing with the amount written. 
In the first column are listed for the entire series 
the number of mechanical errors, such as omission 
of words and the use of the wrong word, as a for as 



* Fifty minutes were given to compositions four and six. In tallying 
the vocabulary, all forms of a verb were regarded as one word; also both 
numbers of a noun. All compound words of doubtful unity were reck- 
oned as two words; likewise all adjectives and the adverbs to which 
they give rise. All proper names were discarded. 



COMPOSITION 



107 



or an, the for them, and other lapses. In Column 
II the same data are given, but with reference to 
the length of the compositions. In Column III 
the total number of genuine misspellings in the 
compositions is given, followed in Column IV by 
the relation of misspellings to breadth of vocabulary 
used. But there may have been a number of lapses 
included here still, especially when a word did not 
occur elsewhere in the entire series of compositions 
to give the writer an opportunity to set himself 
right. Such is probably the case; otherwise the 
figures of Columns V and VI would not be so 
much less than those of Columns III and IV re- 
spectively. The table can not be derived, of course, 
without employing the totals of the first four col- 
umns in Table XIV. 

TABLE XV 



AMOUNT OF COMPOSITION AND BREADTH OF VOCAB- 
ULARY IN RELATION TO LAPSES AND 
MISSPELLINGS 



Different words 
misspelled in 

both the compo- 
sitions andsubse- 
quent column test 



Pupi ] 



Lapses 



Per 100 running 
words of comp. 



Different words 
misspelled in 
compositions 



Per 100 words 
of vocabulary 



Per 100 words 
of vocabulary 



3.08 



19 



7.22* 
7.12 



1.90 
2.54 



* C's slight inferiority here is due to the fact that many of his occa- 
sional misspellings were probably lapses. Note his marked superiority the 
rest of the way through the table. 



1 08 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

The first fact to attract the investigator's atten- 
tion in the course of the tests was the delay of C 
Organization eacn day in starting to write. Of 

of ideas course, D showed some hesitancy, 

too, a characteristic even of older students when 
they are called on to write upon any new theme. 
There is always a preliminary pause for the or- 
ganization of ideas. But even with previous dis- 
cussion of the general subjects treated, and ex- 
hortation "just to tell it right off," this delay in 
C's case amounted to from five to eight minutes 
each day. For this reason, the last two topics 
were chosen with a view to offering a change from 
description to narration in writing. But the ad- 
vantage of the change was not evident; the dis- 
parity between the two boys seemed to be widened. 
The investigator was confident that when the "Trip 
to Colorado" was carried over to the second day, 
C, being right in medias res, would get readily to 
work ; but the usual pause was observed. This, the 
first of several factors, will account for from ten 
to fifteen per cent, of D's broader vocabulary. 

Again, C, as related in Chapter VIII, was trou- 
bled by his spelling conscience. In the entire course 

The spelling of the experiment, D never once 

conscience asked how to spe u a word# fje 

simply wrote it as he thought it ought to be, or, as 
he once put it, "without doing any thinking at all." 
This, by the way, has been his attitude throughout. 
He writes down a word the first way it comes into 



COMPOSITION 109 

his mind, and does not often make a change. C, 
on the other hand, deliberates and worries over 
many words, and he can often see two or more 
ways in which a word may be spelled after 
he has written it. While C spends time in serious 
reflection, D goes swiftly along expressing his 
thoughts without much regard to spelling. 

A third factor which interfered with C's writing 
was his attention to good form and exactness of 
Attention to statement. He would object, for 

technique instance, to saying two feet if 

three would seem to be nearer the truth. But though 
D did not bother about exactness, still his state- 
ments appeared to be just as exact as Cs, possibly 
because he had a better command of number, or 
more vivid imagery. The best proof that D did 
not stop to consider these matters was his failure 
to ask questions of the investigator, which C often 
did. C in oral expression showed the same ten- 
dency to consider carefully before he spoke. When- 
ever he made an error in his composition or formed 
a letter wrongly, he had to erase; but D would 
write the correct form over the incorrect with little 
regard for appearances. At the close of the ex- 
periment, each boy was asked to write in his ex- 
ercise book, "This is my best handwriting." This 
effort, contrasted with the legibility of their general 
writing, made it plain that C executed up to his 
standard more closely than did D. D's composi- 
tions would be illegible in high degree, if one should 



no THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

try to make out isolated words, while Cs were 
perfectly and easily legible. 

Another factor closely connected with the last 
one mentioned is writing tempo. Copies of a sim- 
Rapidity of pk extract from Stanley's Trav- 

writing els in Africa were given the boys, 

and they were directed to copy it for twenty-five 
minutes as fast as the requirements of legibility 
would warrant. The quality of writing submitted 
by the boys on this occasion was much the same 
as that appearing in their compositions; but the 
words on the average were considerably longer. C 
copied two hundred eleven words and D two hun- 
dred ninety-one words in the twenty-five minutes. 
It does not seem probable that in any composition 
period, C ever wrote over half as many words as he 
could have copied; but D did somewhat better. 
Probably neither would have felt in his composi- 
tion writing the limitation of his speed in hand- 
writing, except for the lack of automatism in 
spelling. 

In actual spelling efficiency, as noted in this test 
and numerous others, C is plainly superior to D, 
The results whether the method be oral or 

summarized written, isolated or contextual. 

D's errors are from twenty-five to one hundred 
per cent, more frequent. D wrote seventy-five per 
cent, more than C in a given period of time, and 
used a vocabulary about fifty per cent, richer. If 
we take the first nine hundred running words 



COMPOSITION in 

of D's compositions, we find a vocabulary of just 
four words less than the total for C, though the 
latter has the advantage of one more subject in 
such a reckoning. D is far superior in both facility 
and variety of expression. There also appears to 
be greater initiative, individuality and life in his 
work, greater sincerity in his treatment of a theme, 
more of concrete statement, and more interest felt 
by the writer in what he writes. In respect to form 
alone is he inferior to C. 

It therefore does not appear, so far as C and D 
are concerned, that actual spelling efficiency is a 
dominant factor in producing facile and effective 
writing, or that it introduces variety by enriching 
the vocabulary. Time lost in organizing ideas, con- 
sciousness of spelling difficulties and pitfalls, and 
unnecessary stickling for form and exactness, are 
far more important forces in determining effective 
written expression, or the reverse. 



CHAPTER VIII 

SOME SPECIAL FACTORS IN SPELLING 

IT is proposed to bring together in this chapter 
a number of facts gathered in the entire course 
of the experiments and not mentioned in the pre- 

Learning to read cedin S chapters. Incidental to 
in relation to the collection of the spelling pa- 

learning to spell - ,, . * ,. « . , 

pers and other information which 

formed the basis of Chapter II, the university and 
the high-school students were asked to describe the 
method by which they had learned to read. In- 
structors were told how to explain the question. 
The answers were as follows : 

TABLE XVI 



Method of learning No. of cases Average on spelling test 

to read H. S. ' Univ. H. S. Univ. 

Alphabetic 32 25 68 85 

Word or sentence 6 10 65 83 

Phonic 15 9 59 81 

Combination of meth- 
ods 4 11 S3 89 

Answers indefinite 

or lacking 12 15 56 86 

The frequency with which the alphabet is taught 
at home at an early age, and the combination of 

112 



SOME SPECIAL FACTORS 113 

methods in school may be responsible for the con- 
fusion and uncertainty in the answers of some of 
the students. Many older people can sympathize 
with the one who wrote : "I do not remember how 
I learned to read. It seems as if I have always 
known how." 

To the adult who will take time for introspection, 
it will be apparent that he does not grasp a new word 
as a whole, but proceeds analytically from the start. 
He sees it not as a complex unit but as a compound 
of essential elements. These he unites to form the 
word; but the syllable may be an intervening unity 
with some. But is this the experience of one who is 
well advanced in reading before he learns his let- 
ters ? Will not one so taught always tend to acquire 
new words as wholes, which may do very well for 
reading but not for spelling? The troubles en- 
countered by one who takes an habitually phonetic 
attitude toward words, most of them so unphonetic 
as they are in English, are surely very great. What- 
ever be the best method of teaching reading, we 
must assume that spelling is going to be hampered 
by any method which does not train a child at first 
to see the various letters in a word and to execute 
them in their proper order regardless of their 
sounds. The students examined in this investiga- 
tion who worked from the phonic or the word-sen- 
tence over to the alphabetic method in reading at an 
early stage made the best showing of all in their 
spelling. Their rapid progress in their reading had 



ii 4 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

evidently promoted the acquisition of an effective 
vocabulary, their sense of phonics had been devel- 
oped, and they had learned to resolve words into 
letters. 

The extent to which fear of making errors affects 
one in spelling is interesting and important. In the 
Fear of making group of four boys already re- 
errors ferred to, C was much the best 

speller of the group in the beginning, and he pos- 
sessed a high degree of self-confidence. But his 
own mistakes, and the numerous and grotesque ones 
of his fellows observed by him at every exercise, 
gradually undermined his assurance, and seemed to 
interfere with his efficiency. At the last, he was only 
slightly superior to B and D, in contrast with his 
marked superiority at the start. In his compositions, 
he came to ask aid in spelling easier and easier 
words. One of the writers has felt the same sort 
of disturbing influence as a result, apparently, of 
the continued examination and comparison of mis- 
spellings in the course of the present work. Both 
C and the experimenter came out of the series of 
tests injured rather than benefited in their spelling, 
as far as freedom and self-confidence are concerned. 
A, B and D did not seem to anticipate trouble as 
C finally came to. They appeared not to have de- 
veloped a fear of a misstep that might happen at 
any time, as C did. 

A special precaution should be referred to here. 
Work on the correction of mistakes should be a 



SOME SPECIAL FACTORS 115 

Seeing and hear- matter of individual instruction 
ing mistakes whenever possible. It is serious 

enough for one to have to look over his own errors, 
without having to see those of others. B was 
peculiarly susceptible to mistakes made in his hear- 
ing. In his study of a lesson, he might not have 
any trouble with a given word, but in the test a 
little later he might produce the same misspelling 
as that made by another in the study period. Of 
this trait he seemed wholly unconscious. But in 
contrast with C, he appeared able to recognize this 
as a personal weakness, when he was reminded of 
it, and to labor consciously and efficiently for its 
eradication. 

B and C showed that they both often attempted 
to "reason out" their spelling. They tried to decide 
Can one reason °ne word on the basis of others, 
out a spelling? saying — "It seems as if it would 
be spelled like this word or this one." B once 
asked how the order of i and e in a certain word 
could be remembered. The investigator explained 
that it was just the reverse of a similar word, and 
an exception to the rule. D suggested that one 
ought "just remember it." As a result of this 
attitude, B and C drew many analogies from other 
words. B wrote, for example, prestidge (suggest- 
ing bridge), dishartened (using hart), inborne (us- 
ing borne), and holesail (showing double confusion 
of homonyms). The other boys did the same thing, 
but to a less extent. 



n6 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

Auditory similarities between words do not appeal 
to some persons at all, though such similarities are 
Auditory and prominent with others. B and C 

visual types would often in a joking way- 

make clever rhymes of the words of the lesson, 
and others. Any spelling device based on the mean- 
ing of words did not appeal to B, because he spelled 
in terms of sound. To illustrate, he spelled frus- 
trate without the first r . He was shown the differ- 
ence in the pronunciation of what he had written 
and what he should have written. The mistake 
seemed to amuse him greatly, and after class he 
ran about writing on the board "fuss straight." 
Few would have thought of such a combination. 
When some of the class had trouble with the first 
two syllables of malefactor, it was suggested, in 
harmony with the meaning of the word, that most 
malefactors were of the male sex. This device, B 
pointed out, might lead to mailf actor. Hence he 
missed malefactor on the final test. To remedy 
derth, it was suggested that he think of the word 
made by leaving off d, earth. This stuck by him, 
because it was based on sound. In respect to audi- 
tory spelling, A works in contrast to B and C. A 
never relies on mere sound in spelling, unless the 
word seems wholly strange and he has nothing but 
the sound to guide him. Three times each, C and D 
spelled malign as maline. Although A could not 
spell the word correctly, he never once omitted the 



SOME SPECIAL FACTORS 117 

g. Unlike B, he never spelled with his lips when 

he wrote. 

We must not from this description of differences 

infer that there are spellers who rely wholly on one 

sort of imagery. Dominance of 
No pure types , .1 

certain types must be recognized, 

but that is as far as one may go. People frequently 

talk of "eye- spellers" and "^ar-spellers." But there 

was no pure type in the group studied in these 

experiments. When A spelled meaver for neither 

and was asked what he had written, he pronounced 

meaver as any good speller would have done. There 

is probably no such thing as a strict unphonetic 

speller. When a word is strange, one will always 

spell as it "sounds." Again, B and C have both 

said time and again that "it doesn't look right." 

One of the writers knows of one peculiar case which 

must have approximated the pure visual type. A 

foreign schoolmate who spoke English very well 

became much interested in spelling, and studied her 

lessons diligently. If the teacher should pronounce 

first to her the second word of the lesson, she would 

probably spell the first. And this was in an oral 

spelling class. The fact that the class was being 

conducted according to the auditory-articulatory 

method did not affect the pupil's exclusive reliance 

on visual imagery. 

In Chapter III several typical sources of error 

were discussed with respect to their cause and fre- 



n8 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

Dominant type quency. Co'ntinued work with a 
of error few subjects reveals the fact that 

the frequency of occurrence of any type of error 
varies widely for different persons. The disposi- 
tion of some to rely largely on analogies has been 
mentioned. Other cases in point are the mistakes 
due to failure to double a consonant, and those 
resulting from the unnecessary doubling of a 
consonant. A, B and C are much more likely 
to make an error by not doubling the conso- 
nant than the opposite, while D does just the 
reverse. A has a way of catching the wrong 
pronunciation of the word, perhaps leaving out 
syllables; and he will invert the order of two 
successive letters in either oral or written spelling. 
Another failing of his is the frequent interchang- 
ing of s and c when they have the same sound. 
The elided vowel is a constant source of difficulty, 
and made trouble for each member of this group. 
The old-fashioned oral spelling made a fetish 
of syllabication, while the new-fashioned written 
Syllabication spelling in many schools often 

as an aid ignores syllables completely. 

Words are written as wholes in the spelling lesson, 
because they are to function as wholes in actual 
use in the future. Some of the spelling text-books 
do not present words syllabicated for study. The 
useful purposes which syllabication may serve have 
already been pointed out; but the question arises 
whether the visual images of words are not con- 



SOME SPECIAL FACTORS 119 

fused by having the words chopped up into pieces, 
in which form they will not be used in real life. 
C did not seem to have any preference in the matter, 
but there was some complaint from A and B to 
the effect that words studied orally with the sylla- 
bles written apart did not look familiar when finally 
written as wholes. Probably the advantages of syl- 
labication may be gained without any of its dis- 
advantages, if the words are presented in syllables, 
but written at least once as wholes before any test 
is imposed. For unless he is a pure audile, if 
there is such a type, the pupil needs while studying 
a word to see it as it is finally to appear. 

In the course of these experiments some effort 
was directed toward ascertaining the correlation of 
Traits that make spelling ability with other simple 
good spellers traits. This was prompted by the 

desire to discover the cause of A's curious spellings 
of the more difficult words, and his failures with 
the more simple ones. It had been suspected that 
this boy had defective vision, since he had been 
observed frequently rubbing his eyes. He was 
strong in all his school work except spelling and 
oral reading, though his articulation in conversation 
was defective. An optician had pronounced his vis- 
ion normal. The Snellen test showed A, C and D to 
have both eyes of normal acuity, but B's right eye 
was below normal. The simple test for astigmatism 
indicated that B has some trouble with his left eye 
and C some trouble with both. This may assist 



120 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

in explaining C's frequent omission of a letter here 
and there in a word. The "A" test — the simple 
canceling of all A's on a page of letters with the 
pupil working at maximum speed — placed B first, 
C second and D third, with respect to both speed 
and accuracy. A was fourth in speed, but ranked 
between B and C in accuracy. 

Attention was then directed to the hearing of 
the boys. A had written in an early lesson inprove 
for improve. After some questioning it was found 
that, though the word had long been familiar to him 
and had been used by him, he had always thought it 
was inprove. This, coupled with his phonetic pro- 
nunciation of his misspellings of various new 
words, suggested that he had some degree of deaf- 
ness. But in a test with Seashore's audiometer, 
an instrument for grading very delicately the loud- 
ness of sounds, he was apparently able to detect 
a fainter sound than any of the other boys. This 
was preceded and followed by several tests on ability 
to discriminate or identify the sound heard. Both 
letters and simple words were tried. The general 
result indicated that A's discrimination was only 
slightly inferior when the proper apperceptive basis 
was laid. For instance, if it were announced that 
the choice were to be made from the letters of the 
alphabet or from a specified list of simple words, 
he would hold his own; but if the choice were made 
from a wide range of simple words, and he were 
given no cue beforehand, he would fall behind the 



SOME SPECIAL FACTORS 121 

others. Memory span for letters and for words, 
viz., ability to reproduce accurately a series im- 
mediately after it is presented, did not vary much 
between the members of this groups — not enough 
to explain spelling differences. In fact, the series 
of psychological tests on simple traits demonstrated 
nothing for this group that correlated at all highly 
with spelling ability, except possibly A's defective 
auditory discrimination. 



PART II 
THE SPELLING VOCABULARY 



CHAPTER IX 

POPULAR VIEWS OF SPELLING NEEDS 

WE may now turn from the problems of learn- 
ing to spell to the question of what should 
be taught in spelling. The typical layman, were 
Present theory ne compelled to select a speller 

and practise f or hi s children, would probably 

give preference to that text which presented word 
lists composed of the more difficult and unusual 
terms. Evidence of this may be seen in the keen 
interest and appreciation shown by many adults in 
the successful mastery of "hard" words by the 
young. Within the last few months, observations 
have been made in different schools with special 
reference to the word lists of the spelling lessons. 
A number of lists used for tests or spelling matches 
in different parts of the country have been collected, 
and educational literature has been searched for 
opinions as to what constitutes a fair attainment 
in spelling for graduates of the elementary school. 
Public school-teachers and administrators of long 
experience have been interviewed, and the opinions 
of university professors engaged in studying the 
problems of education have been gathered. The 

125 



126 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

question put to all these persons was : How many 
words should a child be able to spell when he fin- 
ishes the eighth grade ? Estimates made by the vari- 
ous persons mentioned ran all the way from five 
hundred to fifteen thousand words. 

The basis for making an estimate was learned 
in a number of cases. One person said one thou- 
sand words, because of his conviction that this num- 
ber is considerably beyond the ability of many 
eighth -grade pupils as taught at present; and so 
we should be satisfied with one thousand. Two 
others gave an answer based on the assumption that 
one word per day with its inflected forms is as 
much as a child can learn. Another calculated about 
twice as many on the principle that a child can 
learn two words per day. Two men estimated from 
eight thousand to ten thousand words, one of them 
on the theory that the child should be able to spell 
from two-thirds to three- fourths of his reading vo- 
cabulary, the latter having been calculated by ex- 
periment. The principle implied in most of these 
estimates appears to be that a child needs to know 
the spelling of an enormous number of words, and 
that it is the duty of the school to have him mas- 
ter as many as possible. Some fairly close canvass- 
ing indicates that the average elementary speller 
contains upward of six thousand words, though 
there is great variation, as will be seen later. In 
most of our larger public schools, the spelling-book 
is supplemented by words selected from the child's 



POPULAR VIEWS 127 

regular studies. A rough estimate of the number 
of words presented to the typical pupil of a first- 
class elementary school, for purposes of spelling, 
gives from eight thousand to ten thousand. It 
should be added that those school men who said 
that four thousand words or less would be a rea- 
sonable requirement had nevertheless made a prac- 
tise of using in the schools under their supervision 
spellers containing the usual number of words. 
This is merely an additional indication of the lack 
of a critical attitude toward the problem. 

Before proceeding to any examination or criti- 
cism of the content of these long spelling lists, it 
Purpose of ma y be said that the purpose of 

spelling teaching spelling should be to 

give the pupil the ability to write readily such words 
as he may have occasion to use in the typical sit- 
uations of real life. We should keep clearly dis- 
tinct at all times the three sorts of vocabularies 
— the reading, writing and oral vocabularies. Now, 
spelling relates to the mastery of the second of 
these — the writing vocabulary. Some reader may 
be inclined to hold that it is of value for a person 
to know how to spell all the words of his reading 
vocabulary. This would assuredly be true if there 
were any necessary connection between knowing 
how to spell a word, and recognizing that word 
when again presented, or recalling its significance. 
But there is no evidence to show that such a con- 
nection exists; indeed, plenty of evidence to the 



128 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

contrary can be gained by any observant teacher 
any day in the schoolroom. For example, 
every experienced teacher knows well the con- 
stant struggle which is necessary to prevent 
children learning glibly the spelling of many 
words which mean nothing to them, while poor 
spellers often have no trouble in getting the 
meaning of the words of their text-books. Many 
people, too, become intelligent readers of a for- 
eign language without learning its spelling to 
any extent. As to the oral vocabulary, it is no 
doubt much nearer the writing vocabulary in 
scope than is the reading vocabulary. But it is 
perfectly obvious that efficiency in the oral use of 
a word does not arise from a knowledge of its 
spelling. It is possibly true that if an individual 
mispronounces a word he will be helped sometimes 
if he be given its spelling; but if the word be 
unphonetic, and the spelling be impressed upon him, 
he is more likely to be hindered than helped in its 
pronunciation. 

It is sometimes asked whether the brief focusing 
of a child's attention on the spelling of a word, 
even though he does not halt long enough thor- 
oughly to master it, may not help in transfer ring- 
it from his reading to his oral vocabulary. There 
are probably but two factors that determine the 
effective adoption of a word into one's oral vo- 
cabulary. They are the content and the pronun- 
ciation of the word. The content, however, must 



POPULAR VIEWS 129 

come, not from the mechanical arrangement of the 
letters to form the word, or its spelling, but from 
its relation to other familiar words in the context. 
The pronunciation may be gained by the child from 
his knowledge of phonics, or it may come by imi- 
tating the pronunciation of another person. But 
attention given to the literal elements of a word 
in order to make out its correct pronunciation will 
ordinarily fall short of what is necessary in order 
to insure its correct spelling, except in the case of 
words so thoroughly phonetic that neither spelling 
nor pronunciation is at all difficult. Before the 
child can fluently use a word orally, he must grow 
accustomed to its sound as a whole, by hearing 
others pronounce it, and by pronouncing it him- 
self, first in reading, then in conversation, so that 
he may come to feel at home with the word. 

The foregoing statement of the purpose of teach- 
ing spelling should not be let pass without an addi- 

T ,. A tional word of explanation or 

Immediate versus r 

ultimate values qualification. By "words which 

in spelling ^ ^^ ^ haye occas j on fo 

write in the typical situations of real life," is meant 
only those which he will have need for after his 
school-days are over. The proper names found in 
Scott's Lady of the Lake and in the early chapters 
of United States history were a part of the spelling 
work in one class room which the investigator vis- 
ited, yet none of the names in the list, with the 
exception of a few Christian names, is likely ever 



i 3 o THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

to be written by more than five per cent, of the 
members of that class in later life. Practically 
all of the comparatively few who will make use of 
these words are those who will continue their study 
along special lines, or who will enter teaching. 
When the instructor of this class was asked re- 
garding the motive in this work, she remarked, with 
some show of surprise at such a question, that 
"otherwise the class would not spell accurately in 
their papers on United States history and the writ- 
ten language work based on the Lady of the Lake! 9 
Now there is no support for the notion that appre- 
ciation of either history or literature is in any way 
linked up with the spelling of the proper names in- 
volved ; indeed, there is much evidence on the other 
side. One of the chief dangers in the "incidental" 
teaching of spelling is to be found in the disposi- 
tion to bring in more or less technical terms from 
the various studies, as in the case of history and 
literature. Of course, no' one would countenance 
the conscious misspelling of any words by pupils. 
It would be advisable for them to come to feel 
that any word, no matter how rare, should be spelled 
correctly. On the other hand, the teacher should 
give the children the privilege of using the diction- 
ary, or should inform them outright of the spelling 
of infrequent words, instead of including such in 
the regular spelling lists. 

Let us now turn to a consideration of the lists 
of words found in spelling text-books. While every 



POPULAR VIEWS 131 

Pruning one is likely to agree to the gen- 

word lists eral propos i t i on tnat sucn ij sts as 

are at present taught contain some useless words, 
there is still a lack of agreement as to what should 
be omitted. For instance, a distinguished educator 
has recently said — "I have on file a very carefully 
selected list of twenty thousand words, no one of 
which a grammar-school graduate should miss. . . . 
It includes only forty-five salt and fresh water 
fishes." He is apparently counting as separate 
words all standard variations of the various parts 
of speech, except those adding s, so his list would 
probably shrink to sixteen thousand or seventeen 
thousand words if reduced to a dictionary basis by 
eliminating all these standard variations. Yet it 
is to some inconceivable that a grammar-school 
graduate will ever write the names of forty-five 
fishes, unless he becomes a catcher or raiser of 
fish, or an ichthyologist. What about the millions 
of our people who live far from the seas and the 
lakes? The same author writes a little later, "A 
good standard dictionary to-day contains over four 
hundred thousand words, not counting plurals of 
nouns and other standard variations. Of these a 
quarter would be useful to average men if they 
could learn them, which is, however, obviously im- 
possible." We can not but regard this number of 
words as altogether beyond reason. One hundred 
thousand words useful to the "average" man! 
Shakespeare appealed to all sorts of men, irrespec- 



132 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

tive of race, with only fifteen thousand ; and Milton 
with a modest eight thousand was able to express 
himself in a wide range of literature of permanent 
value. Life, to be sure, is more complex to-day 
than ever before; but the limits of the ordinary 
man's mind still are set, and year by year increas- 
ing specialization decreases the range within which 
a modern man must make his adjustments. In 
addition to this, one may be led to very erroneous 
conclusions by comparing an "average" man of the 
twentieth century or any other time, with the Mil- 
tons or the Shakespeares who* have played so promi- 
nent a role in building our language. 

There are two fundamental objections, implicit 

or explicit, that one will meet in attempting to cut 

down our spelling lists. The first 

portion to'cu?" is the exaggerated notion, just 

tailment of vo- alluded to, of the use an "aver- 
cabiilarv 

age" man has for a big vocabu- 
lary. This arises partly from the fact that in pass- 
ing on the eligibility of a word for a place in the 
spelling lists of an elementary school, one almost 
habitually bases his judgment upon his feeling as 
to whether he personally has ever used that 
word in written communication. This is not to be 
wondered at, since to each of us our own experi- 
ence is easily accessible, and that of others is usually 
remote or unknown. 

The second difficulty encountered in pruning 
word lists lies in the prevailing domination of our 



POPULAR VIEWS 133 

elementary by our secondary schools, and our sec- 
ondary by our higher institutions. Each higher 
institution has felt justified, until very recently at 
least, in prescribing for the lower school the sub- 
ject-matter which is thought necessary to prepare a 
small portion of its membership for the superior 
school. The new movement to make courses of 
study adapted to the needs of the majority rather 
than the minority of pupils in the schools has thus 
far had no effect worth noting on spelling. In the 
pursuit of an inquiry relative to the spelling needs of 
elementary-school pupils, the writers have met with 
such suggestions as that they should cover the corre- 
spondence of an ex-senator, or study a newspaper 
of national reputation, whose columns are filled 
by highly trained writers. An intelligent lady 
argued tenaciously that the term Mukden (of 
recent military significance) should be taught be- 
cause the child "may have to write it some time." 
No one has proposed that Cherokee or Apache, or 
even Spanish, Igorrote, Chinese or Hindu be made 
a compulsory study in the elementary school be- 
cause some of the children may become interpreters 
or missionaries; yet the probability of the latter is 
surely much greater than that a considerable num- 
ber of future United States senators, metropolitan 
newspaper correspondents, or writers of world his- 
tory are sitting in every schoolroom in the land. 

Of course, in all education of whatever grade, 
we must take some chances. If one be given a 



i 3 4 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

special education he may prove a misfit, and may 
harm rather than help society ; or the child or youth 
may die before he reaches his productive years, 
thus entailing not only a heavy family loss, but 
a large social one as well. On the sociological 
side, at any rate, education can never become an 
exact science. There is nothing we can teach a 
child and be certain that it will function later. The 
best we can do is to select our materials in such 
a way that there will be a high degree of proba- 
bility that they will all be of service in the later 
life of nearly all the pupils. This is the more true 
since one hears constantly the complaint that the 
program of study is overcrowded, and that many 
subjects really worth while have to be omitted. No 
one of special vocational or professional aptitude 
or inclination should ask to have the course for all 
distorted in order to minister to his peculiar needs. 
But if it becomes apparent that a large percentage of 
the pupils of a school are destined to enter a par- 
ticular calling, classes may be formed for instruc- 
tion in the essentials of this special business; and 
among those essentials may well be included the 
spelling of a number of technical words relating 
to this calling. 



CHAPTER X 

DETERMINING THE WRITTEN VOCABULARY OF TYPI- 
CAL AMERICANS 

HAVING in view the matters discussed in the 
last chapter, the writers have undertaken an 
investigation of the spelling needs of American 
An experimental children. Not many attempts of 
study of spelling this character have yet been 
made; but recently a survey 
was made of the word list employed in the issues 
of several Buffalo Sunday papers.* It was discov- 
ered that in about forty-four thousand running 
words of composition taken from the newspapers 
in question, about six thousand different words and 
forms of words were used. This number would 
shrink perhaps a thousand or more if reduced to 
a dictionary basis, as already defined. The astound- 
ing fact appeared that seven words constituted over 
one- fourth of the whole number. Chancellor at- 
tempted to ascertain from a number of letters that 
came to his desk the one thousand most important 
words.f This when reduced to a dictionary basis 

* Eldridge, Six Thousand Common English Words. Ni- 
agara Falls, N. Y. 
t Journal of Education, May 26, 1910. 

135 



i 3 6 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

shrinks to eight hundred eighty-three words. No de- 
tailed statement, however, is made as to the manner 
in which the study was conducted, or as to the busi- 
ness and education of the correspondents. The list 
is not arranged in a strictly alphabetical order, 
consequently about a dozen words are repeated. 
No note is made of the comparative frequency of 
the different words, so that one is left in doubt as 
to whether frequency was actually studied at all. 
An interesting study of this matter was made 
recently by the Russell Sage Foundation.* The 

results were published in Febru- 
Ayres' study \ . 

of spelling ary, 1913, within about a week 

vocabularies of the time that the wr j ters con . 

eluded the task of tallying the frequency of occur- 
rence of all words in over two hundred thousand 
running words of correspondence according to a 
method to be described presently. Doctor Ayres se- 
lected the first word of each line in two thousand 
letters chosen from a variety of sources. In this 
way twenty-three thousand six hundred twenty-nine 
words were tallied out of a total of one hundred ten 
thousand one hundred sixty. The total number of 
different words and different forms of words oc- 
curring one or more times was found to be two 
thousand one. Of these, the five hundred forty- 
two occurring six or more times were published in 
the order of their frequency. Seven hundred fifty- 



* Ayres, The Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Busi- 
ness Letters. 



THE WRITTEN VOCABULARY 137 

one of the two thousand one occurred but a 
single time. Although the present study is in sev- 
eral respects different from that of Ayres, his data 
will be used as a check and basis of comparison 
at a number of points. 

In searching for a standard to employ in esti- 
mating the writing vocabularies of typical individu- 

„ , , als in American life, and in dis- 
How to find the . 

needs of the "com- covering what words are found 
mon people" most CO mmonly in the written ex- 

pression of ordinary people, it was finally decided to 
use the family correspondence of a group of adults. 
It would be a safe guess, probably, to say that most 
of the spelling needs of nine-tenths of our people 
relate to correspondence of a varied nature with 
relatives and friends. Ordinary business corre- 
spondence is attended to by stenographers, or is 
almost a negligible quantity as far as spelling is 
concerned. It is moreover of a stereotyped and 
usually quite technical character. For every kind 
of business and for every profession there are spe- 
cial needs ; but in these we are not interested, since 
it is spelling for the common school that we are 
considering. It is likely that Ayres' lists do not 
quite indicate the needs of most people, because it 
is probable that in his study family correspondence 
was neglected, to the exaggeration of the import- 
ance of business letters. Sincerely shows a fre- 
quency of one hundred forty-two, truly of one hun- 
dred sixty-six, respectfully of sixty-three and love 



138 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

of only sixteen. Since the average length of the 
letters examined was only fifty-five words, surely 
no great proportion could have been of a family 
character, and only a very few could have dealt 
with the "tender emotion." 

In the present investigation it was determined 
not to include a large amount of correspondence 
between particular friends, because they often have 
only a single line of interest. The vocabulary of 
such correspondence would therefore tend to be 
highly specialized. For a like reason, the corre- 
spondence of immature persons has not been used 
in this study to any great extent. The child's 
interests are not those of an adult. Many of the 
responsibilities of the latter are not felt until one's 
majority is reached. No doubt the framing of a 
course in spelling for elementary pupils should in- 
clude a number of words which an examination of 
the spontaneous compositions of children of differ- 
ent ages shows to be useful in child life, but which 
plays only a small part in the average adult's con- 
sciousness. This matter is discussed fully later on. 

But after all it is family letters that tend 
more than any other form of correspondence to call 
out a vocabulary dealing with the whole range of hu- 
man interests. Family correspondence is not open 
to the usual valid objection to composition tests of 
spelling, viz., that the writer avoids some words, 
the spelling of which is uncertain, and selects others 
whose spelling is known. The errors which the 



THE WRITTEN VOCABULARY 139 

investigators found in much of the correspondence 

examined were not calculated to betray reserve or 

embarrassment over spelling. When a word was 

needed, the correspondent proceeded to 1 spell at it, 

if it were unfamiliar. On the other hand, there 

is in adult family correspondence no endeavor to 

diversify one's vocabulary for the production of 

special literary effects, such as characterizes all 

writing for publication, and renders it valueless for 

our present purpose. 

In collecting the material for investigation, the 

conclusion has been reached that spelling has dis- 

~ ,. . . tinctly declined in importance in 

Declining mi- J x 

portance of the last generation, and is still 

declining. It is entirely possible 
that if the present tendency continues for another 
century, the spelling reformers and their opponents 
will have only a skeleton to 1 fight over. This result 
has followed from the decay of letter- writing, which 
in turn is the result of various social changes. Any 
one who will take the pains to make personal ob- 
servations can verify every point that is made here- 
after relating to the decay of spelling needs. 

Among the conditions that have produced the 
changes referred to may be mentioned first the plen- 
ti fulness of newspapers, magazines and books, 
Books and magazines supply the intellectual stimu- 
lation which the daily, weekly or monthly mail once 
furnished. Those who* migrate to a new home, 
leaving behind acquaintances, friends and relatives, 



i 4 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

often have the local paper follow them at a nominal 
cost. Or if they do not subscribe, the "home-folks" 
bundle up the papers occasionally and forward them, 
naturally without writing, because that would en- 
tail additional expense for postage. Those in the 
new home may not send their own local papers 
regularly to the i 'home- folks" ; but any items of 
special interest they clip out and enclose in a letter. 
Or if anything in the way of a story or witticism 
impresses them as unusually good, it is cut out and 
sent along too*. The clippings often constitute the 
bulk of the letter. 

In the second place, there is vast improvement 
and greater freedom in means of communication. 
Postal rates have been lowered, not for first-class 
matter only, but for all classes of mailable matter. 
The use of telegraph and telephone is coming 
within the reach of more and more people. With- 
out cost, or for a few cents at most, people can 
telephone some distance across country or from 
town to town, transact business, or reach decisions 
that by correspondence would require several let- 
ters. Travel is increasing out of all proportion to 
population. Annual vacations, holiday rates and 
all sorts of excursions are substituting visiting and 
personal conference for letter-writing. Friends a 
hundred miles or two apart may not write for 
months; but once or twice a year they may come 
together and visit over their joys and sorrows. 

Again, the changing status of women in the home 



THE WRITTEN VOCABULARY 141 

and new business methods, are shifting the burden 
of letter-writing. Though the mother was in the 
early days the teacher and intellectual leader of the 
family, her other responsibilities were much heavier 
than to-day. She no longer goes into the fields to 
work; much of the family raiment is purchased 
ready-made; and more or less of the food is pre- 
pared outside of the home. With these changes, 
women have become to some extent a leisure class. 
They still do most of the reading and practically 
all of the writing for the family. A rather ex- 
tensive inquiry among friends and acquaintances 
has shown it to be impossible to secure more than 
perhaps one-tenth as much written matter in gen- 
eral from the pens of men as from those of women. 
In this inquiry, households were found where men, 
perfectly able to write, do not, from pure disin- 
clination to undertake the task, produce a letter 
from one year's end to the other. They confine 
themselves to signing legal papers. Professional 
men, possibly from their greater facility in expres- 
sion, are less derelict in this connection. Yet as 
many of them as can afford it are known by sten- 
ographers to dictate much of their most private 
correspondence as well as their business letters. In 
these times a scholar can write a book without 
doing any spelling himself. 

Lastly, the development of the post-card as a 
means of communication has proved highly destruc- 
tive of letter-writing. Special cards are issued for 



142 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

Thanksgiving, Christmas, New Year's, Valentine's 
Day, St. Patrick's Day, Easter and so on. At such 
times it is the custom to "remember everybody." 
If the intervals are unduly long, the "remembrance" 
comes to hand in the form of some local view or 
comic card. The most novel and extreme form is 
the short letter already written for the correspond- 
ent. "Arrived at Kalamazoo on the . . . inst" 
The writer fills in the date. Then follow a number 
of statements, such as "Like the town," "Am well," 
"Having a good time," "The boys (or girls) are 
good-lookers," "Remember me to the rest." After 
each statement is a place for "Yes" or "No," or 
check for "Yes," leaving the other spaces blank. 

Many people, of course, are bound to be seriously 
disturbed at any movement that would tend to limit 

., . . ', a person's knowledge of spelling 
No imminent dan- l & i » 

ger erf hampering to the demonstrated demands of 
those living a generation ahead of 
him. It will be asserted that if the art of written 
expression is on the decline, we should strive to 
train our children in the opposite direction, and 
not hamper them by reducing their writing vocab- 
ulary. All such persons should recall the fact that 
the decline of letter-writing is traceable to social 
factors, as has been shown. In no sense has it 
resulted from teaching the spelling of too few 
words. The truth of the whole matter is that 
every one who has finished the elementary school 
is carrying around in his head for years afterward 



THE WRITTEN VOCABULARY 143 

hundreds, if not thousands, of words that he never 
writes. And is it not possible that the learning of 
these words extracted from his short school-days 
valuable time which should have been devoted to 
really vital instruction that he failed to get because 
there was "not enough time" ? Moreover, this large 
expenditure of time and energy in learning to spell 
has not apparently produced good spellers. If we 
want good spelling, shall we not put the pressure 
on the most vital words, instead of on the less vital, 
or non-vital ones? 

Suppose that by a restriction of spelling lists a 
child should later find himself hampered with ref- 
erence to a few words. They are all in the diction- 
aries, pocket editions of which are easily secured. 
Further, why can he not learn to spell a few words 
after he leaves the elementary school? Why not 
carry spelling through the high school and even the 
university if necessary? As a matter of fact all 
intelligent adults are learning to spell every now and 
then. Many words commonly written to-day were 
found twenty years ago in the supplement of the 
unabridged dictionary. It should be remembered 
that the business of the common school is to pre- 
pare children for the life of two decades hence, 
while school texts, more especially spellers, are apt 
to reflect the needs of many decades past. 



CHAPTER XI 

SOURCES AND CHARACTER OF DATA 

IT has been the aim in this investigation to study 
individual needs rather than to secure a com- 
posite of the vocabularies of many persons, so the 
Sources of writers confined their request for 

the data correspondence to a limited num- 

ber of persons— thirteen in all. Five of these per- 
sons were men and the other eight were women. 
Various degrees of academic training are repre- 
sented, ranging from schooling equivalent to three 
grades of the present elementary school perhaps, 
up to a year of graduate work in a state university. 
Different sorts of interest and vocation are sam- 
pled in a fairly typical way. That the correspond- 
ence examined was not local or sectional in its 
character may be inferred from the statement that 
it bore not fewer than forty different postmarks 
from widely separated portions of our own country 
and from some foreign lands. This variety of en- 
vironments should be of assistance in gaging de- 
mands for the spelling of proper names, though 
travel plays slightly too important a part to make 
the letters truly typical. Of course, it is un'der- 

144 



SOURCES OF DATA 145 

stood that no person knew at the time of writing 
that any of his work was to be utilized in this study. 

For the sake of completeness and definiteness, 
the following brief account is given of each of the 
thirteen persons at the time they produced the let- 
ters used by the writers : 

S., fifty-six years of age, mother of a family. 
Her education was probably equivalent to the 
course of an ordinary elementary school. She con- 
tributed twelve thousand running words, written 
to her adult children and their families. 

P., daughter of S., aged twenty-seven, mother of 
a family. Attended high school and took one year 
of university work. A voluminous letter-writer, 
accustomed to recount all the details of family life, 
Contributed forty thousand running words, taken 
from her letters to her mother, husband, brother 
and other near relatives. 

C, husband of P., aged thirty. Had high-school 
education and completed a technical course at the 
university, now a civil engineer managing a factory. 
Contributed five thousand running words, taken in 
about equal portions from letters to his wife and 
her relatives on the occasion of a trip to California. 

W., son of S., brother of P., aged twenty to 
twenty-five. Graduate in state university, teacher 
in public high school. Contributed forty thousand 
running words, written to his wife mainly before, 
but in part after, marriage. 

H., wife of W., aged nineteen to twenty-four, 



146 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

graduate of elementary school. Contributed forty 
thousand running words, written to W. mainly be- 
fore, but in part after, marriage. 

E., sister of H., aged twenty-seven, graduate of 
elementary school. Bookkeeper and stenographer. 
Contributed five thousand running words, written 
to her mother and sister. 

N., mother of H. and E., aged sixty-four. Had 
meager educational opportunities. She says she 
never finished the third reader. Contributed five 
thousand words, written to her daughters. 

A., aged sixty, mother of a family. Attended 
the academy of an earlier day, then spent three 
years in a seminary of good standing, afterward 
taught for several years. Contributed twenty- four 
thousand words, written to her sisters from her 
Connecticut home, later from England, France and 
Germany. 

G., aged twenty-five, postgraduate in classical 
languages in state university of Middle West. 
Teacher in girls' private school. Contributed five 
thousand words, written to her mother, mostly with 
regard to social life and personal matters outside 
of school. 

O., aged eighteen, high-school graduate, from 
a home of unusual intellectual and social opportuni- 
ties and stimulation. Contributed eight thousand 
words, written to her parents while at home and 
away from home. 

J., aged about forty, lawyer and public man in 



SOURCES OF DATA 147 

a small city. Graduated from state normal school, 
and spent two years in law school. Contributed 
six thousand words, written to a public-school su- 
perintendent, on whose board J. once served. The 
letters were written before and after the two men 
had severed their official connections. 

M., aged about twenty-three, graduate of state 
normal school, spent one year tutoring at Washing- 
ton, then became principal of a city elementary 
school. Contributed five thousand words, written 
while serving in the two capacities above named. 
They were addressed to an older brother, also a 
teacher, but contained little "shop talk." 

B., aged twenty-eight, spent two years in high 
school, and then took a course in the business col- 
lege, is now a bookkeeper and stenographer in a 
wholesale grocery house. Contributed five thou- 
sand words, addressed to a brother, along business 
and personal lines. 

Another kind of material utilized in this investi- 
gation came from three spelling-books described 
below. Their vocabularies were arranged alpha- 
betically that they might be checked up with the 
vocabularies of the correspondents, and with one 
another, in order to discover the underlying prin- 
ciple, if any were followed, in the selection of ma- 
terials for the spelling text-books of to-day, and 
to test readily the validity of such principles by 
the concrete material derived from the correspond- 
ence. Two of these spelling texts appeared in 1908, 



148 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

and one in 191 2. They are published by two lead- 
ing text-book companies, and one of the books 
might, perhaps, be considered the most-used ele- 
mentary spelling-book in the country. These three 
texts were chosen because it was believed that they 
exemplified the better, not the poorer, attempts in 
modern text-book construction. They will here- 
after be referred to as Spellers A, B and C. 

Speller A is divided into two books, giving work 
stated to be for grades III-VIII inclusive. "A 
large number of English words that present no diffi- 
culty have been excluded" (Preface). The 

publishers make the following claim for this book : 
"Only those words have been admitted which be- 
long to the writing vocabulary of the average per- 
son. The many words that are known in reading, 
but that are seldom if ever used by the average man 
in writing, have been excluded. Words that pre- 
sent no spelling difficulty and need no study have 
also been omitted." 

Speller B is divided into seven books. Just how 
it is intended that the work of these should be ad- 
justed to the eight grades is not stated ; perhaps the 
most reasonable assumption is that no book is allot- 
ted to Grade I. The feature of this book is the use 
in adjacent sentences of the words presented in 

the column lessons. " About six thousand 

words, not counting different forms of verbs and 
nouns, are thus presented in use. Excepting a few 
of the most simple words used in Books I and II, 



SOURCES OF DATA 149 

no word is used in a sentence before it is given in 

the column About six thousand more words, 

classified as 'additional' and less common' words 

are given in columns following the regular 

sentence presentation" (Preface). 

Speller C outlines work for the entire elementary 
course, except the first half of the first year. A 
large number of dictation and completion exercises 
are presented. Many of the former are selected 
from literary masterpieces, and contain large num- 
bers of more or less uncommon words. A state- 
ment made in the introduction as to not requiring 
pupils to learn uncommon words evidently meant 
that any unusual literary names (those applied to 
literary characters, not the names of the authors 
themselves) should be omitted. Everything save 
directions to pupils has been included in cal- 
culating the vocabulary of this text. However, 
in the case of word-building exercises, the words 
actually found in the book, and not those built by 
the pupil, have been taken into account. The 
French and Latin words and phrases are marked 
in the text, "For reference only." 

Test lists used in different parts of the country 
on important spelling occasions would not be of 
No consideration much value in this investigation. 
of test lists if judged by the criterion of their 

frequency of use in after life, they would be found 
wanting. However, one must not forget that the 
purpose of these competitions is not normally to 



150 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

teach pupils how to spell, but to make them fail 
to spell, so that the question. of personal superiority 
can be settled. Hence it is to be expected that 
comparatively rare words must be drawn in very 
largely before a decision can be reached. No one 
can doubt, though, that special test lists for every- 
day purposes in the regular school work should be 
graded carefully, that they should consist of words 
that people often use, and that a pupil's promotion 
in spelling should depend on his capacity for spell- 
ing words that he is later to use in expressing him- 
self. 

In the arrangement of vocabularies in this in- 
vestigation, several rules of procedure have been 
Rules of kept in mind, and followed as 

procedure consistently as possible. First of 

all, the dictionary basis has been adhered to. This 
has resulted in the appearance in every list of nouns 
in the singular number and nominative case only, 
though a few plurals appear in cases where the 
plural is the form habitually employed. The sin- 
gular of no such word is then permitted in the list. 
The same policy is followed relative to another 
group of words, such as news, afterwards^ besides, 
etc. But the various forms of the personal pro- 
nouns are so highly disparate that all variant forms 
are included, except ours, yours and theirs. Like- 
wise only the positive degree of adjectives is in- 
cluded, except that the comparative or superlative 
occurs for the few which lack a positive form. So 



SOURCES OF DATA 151 

also of verbs; the present infinitive is considered 
the root form. To illustrate, for the verb to be, 
the forms, is, are, was, were, being, been, are al- 
ways checked as be. The justification for such 
procedure is, first, that it simplifies the problem; 
and, second, that an individual who has any real 
use for a root word will doubtless have also a real 
use for its inflected forms, though of course some 
of the derivatives may have a very different fre- 
quency of use from the root word itself. 

In the second place, words of identical spelling 
and like pronunciation are not differentiated in the 
lists. For instance, might is always referred to 
may, whether it be the past tense of the latter, 
or the noun meaning power or strength. As far as 
dealing with the lists in spelling texts goes, it is 
impossible to tell, when we see might in a column, 
whether it is a noun or a verb. Hence we need to 
act similarly in dealing with correspondence. And 
while from some points of view it would perhaps 
be desirable to know whether in spelling we should 
stress might as a noun or as a verb, it is probable 
that as long as the phonic elements are the same, if 
the child learns to spell the word merely as one 
part of speech, he will spell it correctly in its other 
forms, barring a homonymic interference. Many 
simple words, like hoe (noun and verb), pin (noun 
and verb), etc., come under the principle just men- 
tioned. 

In the third place, words of identical spelling but 



152 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING '" 

dissimilar pronunciation are included but once. 
This, too, was necessitated by the fact that words 
like grease and canon do not always have their pro- 
nunciation indicated in the columns of the spelling- 
book. Difficulty with or confusion in the use of 
such words can be obviated by teaching them with 
both their meanings and their appropriate pronun- 
ciations. This need not often involve the teaching 
of an uncommon word, or a common word with 
an uncommon signification, unless the teacher is 
injudicious enough to go outside his own reading 
vocabulary. 

1, a and o have been excluded from consideration, 
for while they are technically words, they are also 
mere letters, and the question of spelling obviously 
does not enter in. All syncopations are entered as 
though written in full, except the single one, 
o'clock, which is standard and preferable to the 
full form on all occasions. A few of the more 
common apostrophized forms would have been in- 
cluded, had it been possible to tell where to stop; 
but Til leads on to I'd, and you'd, and finally 
who'd, so all such forms were regarded as if the 
words had been written in full. In dealing with 
the correspondence, all abbreviations are treated as 
if written in full, except Mr., Mrs., etc. and O. K., 
and the initials of persons. These latter are totally 
disregarded. The reason is that aside from o'clock, 
and the abbreviations just mentioned, the knowl- 
edge of the spelling of a word may be presumed 



SOURCES OF DATA 153 

to have preceded the knowledge of its abbreviation, 
and for the additional reason, that the abbrevia- 
tion in all except the most familiar correspondence 
is not yet recognized as good form. Baby talk 
is excluded, but large numbers of colloquial ex- 
pressions, if justified by the dictionary, are in- 
cluded. The Standard Dictionary has been used 
in determining the eligibility of such words. 

Some arbitrary standard had to be recognized 
in the treatment of numbers, so it was decided to 
exclude from consideration all dates, all street 
numbers, all quantities of money expressed in deci- 
mal fashion, all hours of the day when in the 
standard form (e.g., 5:45), all numbers over one 
hundred, except round numbers like a thousand, 
ten thousand, or a million. Such a course seems 
advisable, because the exemptions made are properly 
expressed by figures. 

All words with hyphens have been considered as 
two words. Foreign words and expressions scarcely 
naturalized have been kept in a segregated list in 
the examination of both spelling texts and corre- 
spondence. Proper names of every sort have also 
been segregated into a special list. They are noted 
as to frequency in all the correspondence, but not 
considered a part of the vocabulary of any person, 
since changing associations in the local environment 
will constantly introduce new names. Consequently 
proper terms are skipped in counting of! the two 
hundred thousand words of correspondence. Words 



154 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

which become proper names only in specific connec- 
tions, as seen in the expressions, Kansas City, or 
Franklin Street, and even there retain their general 
significance, are not considered as proper names. 

The vocabulary found in the correspondence of 
each person has been kept entirely separate from 
The arrangement everything else, so that, as ex- 
of words plained above, we might gain 

some view of the extent of individual needs, and, 
what is still more important from the point of 
view of the public school, we might examine the 
general agreement or community of needs. 
Though the frequency of each word is given in the 
lists of this study, the words are not arranged ac- 
cording to frequency because, in the first place, if 
one examines a "frequency" list one finds it diffi- 
cult to tell whether a particular word is present, 
to say nothing of the probability of clerical mis- 
takes leading to duplications. With Ayres' list no 
doubt extraordinary care was exercised, yet in the 
published portions at least three words are repeated, 
which alters more or less seriously their position 
in the list. Second, a word which has a given fre- 
quency and is universally used should be given a 
more prominent position in the list than one which 
occurs somewhat more frequently but serves only 
three- fourths as many persons, showing that its idea 
is less universalized or permits of ready expression 
in other ways. In the present study, the word 
big has almost exactly twice the frequency of busy, 



SOURCES OF DATA 155 

yet it does not occur in the letters of two' of the 
thirteen correspondents, because its idea can be ex- 
pressed by large. Neither of these two persons is 
among the three who fail to use large. But busy, 
for which no ready substitute seems to be offered, 
is employed by every subject. Illustrations could 
be multiplied ad libitum. Third, where the corre- 
spondence of a limited number of persons is studied 
in detail, as in the present case, the prominence 
given to a somewhat unusual word by two or even 
one of the subjects might place it in an entirely 
false light if frequency were the basis of arrange- 
ment. 



CHAPTER XII 

WORD LISTS DERIVED FROM CORRESPONDENCE 

THE plan followed in tabulating the data of 
this investigation has been to divide the total 
vocabulary of the thirteen correspondents into four 
The method of alphabetical lists. List I con- 
classifying data ta j ns W ords used by all the corre- 
spondents; List II, those used by a majority of 
them; List III, those used by more than one but- 
less than a majority; List IV, those used by one 
writer only. Immediately after each word is placed 
its frequency in the two hundred thousand running 
words. In the third column is noted how many 
of the three spelling-books, A, B and C, contain 
it. In the fourth column stands the list in which 
the given word comes if only the women corre- 
spondents be considered. In the fifth column the. 
same information is given from the standpoint of 
the men correspondents. All vacant spaces in Col- 
umns III, IV and V signify non-occurrence. In 
Column VI the letters A and C indicate respectively 
whether found in Ayres* published list of the five 
hundred forty-two most frequent words, or in Chan- 
cellor's list of the thousand most common words 

156 



WORD LISTS 157 

in every-day use. Columns IV and V are omitted 
in List I, since they would be simply a succession 
of I's, 

LIST I 

l86 WORDS WORDS USED BY ALL THE CORRE- 
SPONDENTS 

I II III IV 

about 889 2 AC 

after 365 2 AC 

afternoon 389 2 A 

again 256 3 AC 

all 1369 2 A 

almost 153 3 C 

also 166 3 A 

an 346 1 AC 

and 8252 2 AC 

another 166 2 A 

any 530 2 AC 

around 143 2 C 

as 1368 1 A 

ask 186 2 A 

at 1240 1 A 

away 193 2 A 

back 299 2 AC 

be 9711 2 AC 

before 361 2 AC 

boy 171 2 AC 

build 89 3 AC 

busy 71 3 AC 

but 1771 2 AC 

by 439 2 A 

can 1190 3 AC 

cannot 392 1 

church 159 2 A 

come 946 2 AC 

course 202 3 A 

day 916 2 AC 

dear 481 2 AC 

do 2498 3 AC 

down 384 2 AC 

enough 158 3 A 

even 360 2 AC 

ever 222 2 AC 



158 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

I II III IV 

every 232 

far 96 

feel 473 

few 156 

find 217 

first 237 

for 2263 

four 172 

friend 90 

from 895 

get 1667 

give 309 

glad 235 

go 1981 

good 837 

guess 128 

have 4562 

he 1166 

hear 279 

help 224 

her 1061 

here 613 

him 459 

his 441 

home 496 

hope 259 

hour 170 

house 367 

how 433 

if 1050 

in 2511 

it 3607 

just 763 

keep 205 

know 790 

last 531 

late 102 

leave 348 

let 208 

letter 800 

like 553 

little 778 

live 117 

long 279 

look 386 

make 633 

man 206 

many 314 



3 


C 


2 


C 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


A 


1 


A 


3 


AC 


3 


AC 


1 


A 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


1 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 




3 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


A 


1 


AC 


1 


A 


2 


A 


3 


AC 


3 


A 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


1 


AC 




A 


2 


A 


2 


A 


3 


AC 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 




2 


AC 


2 


A 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 



WORD LISTS 159 

I II III IV 

me 1377 

mine 57 

morning 478 

much 947 

must 399 

my 1457 

need 114 

never 247 

new 220 

next 302 

nice 198 

night 547 

no 335 

not 2878 

nothing 71 

now 489 

of 3252 

off 175 

old 294 

on 1175 

one 1117 

only 419 

or 680 

other 344 

ought 97 

out 703 

over 427 

own 176 

part 109 

pay 168 

people 160 

place 217 

pretty 249 

put 254 

quite 159 

rest 125 

right 242 

run 101 

same 110 

say 906 

see 789 

seven 66 

several 56 

she 1542 

show 71 

six 124 

so 1729 

some 750 



1 


AC 


2 


C 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


1 


AC 


2 


A 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


1 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


1 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


1 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


1 


A 


2 


AC 


3 


C 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


C 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


A 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


1 


C 


3 


AC 


2 


C 


1 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


2 


C 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


2 


C 


1 


AC 


2 


AC 



160 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

I II III IV 

soon 196 

spend 103 

start 143 

such 224 

suppose 164 

sure 179 

take 535 

talk 149 

tell 669 

than 321 

that 2514 

the 7606 

their 210 

them 636 

then 456 

there 852 

they 925 

thing 414 

think 1178 

this 1236 

though 148 

three 251 

through 160 

time 893 

to 7553 

too 408 

town 165 

train .., 148 

try 199 

two 501 

up 782 

us 368 

use 160 

very 644 

visit.. 102 

want 543 

way 271 

we 2218 

week 505 

well 672 

what 479 

when 766 

where 162 

which 255 

while 204 

will 3058 

wish 252 

with 1314 



2 


AC 


2 


C 


2 


A 


2 


A 


2 




3 


A 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


1 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


A 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


A 


2 


C 


3 


AC 


3 


AC 


3 


AC 


1 


AC 


2 


A 


3 


AC 


3 


AC 


3 


A 


2 


A 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


3 


AC 


3 


A 


3 


AC 


2 


A 


2 


AC 



WORD LISTS 



161 



I II 

write 867 

year 254 

yesterday 317 

yet 180 

you 4099 

your 1117 



III 


IV 


3 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


AC 


2 


C 


1 


AC 


2 


AC 



LIST II 



577 WORDS WORDS USED BY A MAJORITY OF THE 

CORRESPONDENTS 

I II III IV V VI 

able , 100 2 II I C 

above 25 2 III I 

accept 12 3 III I A 

account 31 2 II I A 

across 36 3 II I C 

act 27 2 III II C 

add 15 2 III I C 

address 35 3 II II A 

advantage 15 2 III I 

afraid 79 3 II IV C 

afterward 12 1 II II 

against 25 2 III II C 

age 32 2 II II 

ago 81 1 II I A 

ahead 23 2 II II 

air 21 2 II II 

allow 18 3 II III A 

alone 43 3 II III A 

along 91 1 I II 

already 45 2 II II C 

always 153 3 II II AC 

among 23 3 II II AC 

amount 28 2 II II 

answer 108 3 II II A 

anxious 29 3 II III 

anything 190 1 I II A 

anyway 33 II III 

appreciate 17 2 III II A 

arrive 75 2 II I A 

asleep 20 3 II IV 

attempt 13 1 II III 

attend 42 2 III I A 

aunt 170 3 I II C 

automobile 47 3 II III 



1 62 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

avenue 32 

awful * 91 

awfully 26 

baby 39 

bad 244 

badly 23 

bank 30 

basket 16 

bath 35 

beat 36 

beautiful 67 

because 263 

become 36 

bed 170 

begin 97 

believe 168 

beside 48 

ibetween 40 

big 141 

bill 38 

birthday 31 

bite 67 

black 32 

blame.... 12 

block 33 

blood.. 18 

blow 21 

blue 43 

board 125 

body 15 

book 104 

both 140 

bottle 12 

bottom 12 

box 95 

bread 30 

break 45 

breakfast 62 

bring 91 

brother 74 

brown. . 21 

burn 28 

business 99 

butter 22 

buy 122 

cake 39 

call 151 

car 77 



III IV V 


VI 


2 11 


[ III 




3 I 


[ III 

[ III 




2 I] 


[ III 


AC 


2 I] 


[ I 


AC 


1 I 


r II 


C 


2 I 


II 


C 


3 I 


III 




2 I 


III 




3 II] 


[ II 


C 


3 I 


II 




2 ] 


[ II 


A 


1 I] 


[ II 


A 


2 ] 


[ II 


AC 


2 I] 


[ II 


AC 


3 I] 


II 


AC 


2 I 


III 




3 I] 


[ I 




2 I 


II 


C 


2 I 


III 


c 


2 


IV 




2 I] 


II 




2 I] 


[ IV 


c 


2 I] 


III 


c 


2 I 


II 




2 I 


III 


c 


2 I 


III 


c 


2 I 


[ III 


c 


3 I 


[ II 


AC 


1 I 


III 


c 


2 11 


[ II 


AC 


2 I 


I 


A 


3 I 






3 II 


II 




2 


II 


A 


3 I 


[ IV 


C 


3 


II 


C 


3 


III 


C 


2 I 


II 


C 


3 I 


[ II 




2 I 


III 


C 


2 I 


[ III 




2 I 


t I 


AC 


1 I 


[ IV 


C 


3 I 


I 


C 


2 I 


IV 




2 


II 


A 


1 I] 


[ II 


C 



WORD LISTS 



163 



I II 

card 95 

care 119 

careful 25 

carry 47 

case 27 

catch 38 

cause 1 25 

cent 118 

certain 20 

certainly 71 

chair 36 

chance 39 

change 86 

charge 29 

cheap 22 

cheese 11 

chicken 25 

child 160 

chop 11 

city 77 

class 74 

clean 117 

clear 50 

clock 10 

close 129 

cloth 18 

clothe 70 

coat 46 

coffee 24 

cold 167 

color 26 

comfort 16 

comfortable 14 

common 15 

company 59 

compare 13 

concern 11 

condition 21 

continue 11 

cook 36 

cool 41 

copy 19 

corn 15 

cost 78 

count 24 

country 36 

couple 37 

cover 35 



[II 


IV 


V VI 


2 






[ A 


2 






c 


3 








2 






c 


2 






A 


3 






c 


3 






[ AC 


3 






AC 


3 


III 




A 


2 








2 






C 


2 








2 






AC 


2 








3 




II 




3 








2 






7 C 


3 






I AC 


2 




II 




2 






A 


2 






[ A 


2 






C 


2 




II 


c 


2 




II 




2 






c 


3 








2 




II 


c 


2 








3 


III 






2 






[ AC 


3 






C 


3 




II 




2 




II 


C 


2 


III 




c 


3 






A 


1 








3 


III 






2 








3 


III 






2 






C 


2 




II 




3 


III 




[ A 


2 




II 


C 


2 






[ AC 


2 




II 


C 


3 






AC 


2 








2 






[ A 



1 64 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

crazy 29 

cross 27 

cup 12 

cure 13 

cut 81 

dance 38 

dark 36 

date 24 

daughter 12 

dead 24 

deal 63 

death 27 

decide 65 

degree 11 

die 27 

difference 19 

different 45 

dinner 182 

direct . 13 

disappoint 34 

dish 31 

divide 9 

doctor 152 

dollar 37 

door 53 

doubt 22 

dress 174 

drive 39 

drop 31 

dry. 33 

during 47 

dust 29 

duty 24 

each , 93 

early 55 

earth 10 

eat 126 

effect 13 

eight 66 

either 62 

electric 10 

eleven 31 

else 67 

enclose 30 

end 57 

enjoy 107 

equal 14 

especially 37 



III 



IV 



V 



VI 





II 


IV 




2 


II 


III 




2 


III 


II 


c 


2 


II 


IV 




2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


III 




2 


II 


III 


c 


2 


II 


II 


AC 


3 


II 


III 


AC 


3 


II 


III 


C 


2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


III 


C 


3 


II 


II 


A 


2 


II 


II 




3 


II 


IV 


C 


2 


III 


II 


C 


2 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


I 


II 


C 


2 


III 


II 


AC 


3 


III 


II 




2 


11 


III 


C 


3 


II 


III 


C 


3 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


I 


II 


C 


2 


II 


III 


C 


3 


II 


I 


C 


2 


I 


II 


C 


2 


II 


II 


c 


2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


II 




1 


III 


II 


A 


2 


II 


III 


C 


3 


II 


II 


C 


3 


II 


II 


A 


3 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


II 


III 


C 


2 


I 


II 


c 


2 


II 


I 


c 


3 


I 


II 


c 


2 


I 


II 


A 


2 


III 


II 




3 


II 


II 




3 


I 


II 


A 


2 


II 


II 


A 


2 


II 


II 


C 


2 


II 


I 


AC 


3 


III 


II 




1 


III 


I 


A 



WORD LISTS 



165 



I II 

everybody 37 

everything 105 

examination 26 

except 78 

excuse 15 

expect 147 

expense 19 

experience 13 

express 20 

extra 33 

eye 66 

face 58 

fact 40 

fail 23 

fair 35 

fall 68 

family 84 

fast 35 

fat 15 

father 87 

fear 20 

fellow 63 

fifteen 40 

fifty 30 

fight 18 

fill 38 

fine 170 

finish 150 

fire 51 

fit 33 

five 161 

fix 47 

flat 21 

floor 42 

folk 157 

follow 28 

foot 58 

forenoon 123 

forget 75 

fourth . . . 16 

free 27 

front . .. 37 

full 51 

fun 28 

funny 31 

further 22 

game 64 

gate 13 



[II 


IV V VI 


2 


II I] 
II ] 




1 


III I] 


A 


2 


II I 




3 


II II] 




3 


I I] 


[ A 


3 


III I 


A 


2 


II I] 


[ A 


2 


II II 




2 


II I 




2 


II I 


[ C 


2 


II I 


c 


1 


III 


c 


3 


III I 


c 


3 


II I 


[ c 


2 


II I 


[ c 


3 


II I 


[ c 


2 


II II 




1 


II I\ 




2 


II II 


[ AC 


2 


II II] 


[ c 


2 


II 


c 


3 


II II 




2 


III I 


[ c 


3 


III 


: » c 


2 


I II 


A 


2 


I I 


AC 


2 


II I 




3 


II II 




2 


II I 




2 


I I 


c 


1 


II I 


[ c 


2 


II I 




2 


II I 


[ c 


2 


II I 




2 


III 


[ AC 


2 


II I 


[ c 


2 


II II 




2 


II I 




1 


III 




2 


III I 


C 


2 


II I 


I C 


2 


II 




2 


II II 




2 


II I 




3 


III I 


[ A 


2 


I II 


[ c 


3 


III I 





1 66 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

gather 12 

general 11 

girl 410 

glass 26 

grade 24 

grand 22 

great 168 

green 29 

grind 33 

grip 13 

grow 38 

hair 46 

half 120 

hall 24 

hand 90 

hang 43 

happen 45 

happy. . . 92 

hard 186 

hardly 65 

hat 45 

hate 18 

head 74 

health 13 

heart 51 

heat 27 

heavy 38 

herself 36 

high 101 

himself 28 

hold 72 

hole 17 

horse 21 

hot 81 

hotel 52 

however 37 

hurry 36 

hurt 60 

idea. # 28 

imagine 52 

impossible 17 

improve 17 

inside 16 

insist 17 

instead 50 

intend 44 

interest 68 

into 125 



III 



IV 



V 



VI 



2 


II 


III 


c 


3 


III 


II 


AC 


2 


I 


II 


AC 


2 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


III 


II 




2 


II 


II 


C 


3 


II 


I 


AC 


2 


II 


III 


C 


2 


II 


II 


C 


1 


II 


IV 




3 


II 


II 


C 


3 


II 


IV 


C 


3 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


II 


II 


C 


2 


II 


I 


AC 


2 


II 


III 




2 


II 


II 


C 


2 


II 


II 


C 


2 


I 


II 


AC 


1 


II 


II 




2 


II 


III 


AC 


1 


II 


II 


C 


3 


I 


III 


C 


3 


II 


III 




3 


III 


II 


C 


2 


III 


II 


C 


3 


II 


II 


C 


1 


II 


II 




2 


II 


I 


c 


2 


II 


II 




1 


II 


II 


A 


2 


II 


II 




3 


II 


II 


C 


2 


II 


III 


C 


2 


II 


II 




1 


III 


II 


AC 


2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


III 


C 


2 


II 


II 




3 


II 


II 




2 


III 


II 


A 


3 


II 


II 




2 


II 


II 


C 


2 


III 


II 




2 


II 


II 


A 


2 


II 


II 


A 


2 


II 


I 


A 


2 


II 


I 


C 



.WORD . LISTS 167 

y i \ 

I II III IV V VI 

invite 54 2 

iron 71 3 

job 60 

join 13 1 

kid 47 1 

kill 13 3 

kind 100 2 

kiss 84 2 

kitchen 38 2 

lady 65 2 

land 23 2 

large 65 2 

lately 10 

learn 56 3 

lesson 17 2 

library 11 3 

life 70 3 

light 52 3 

line 82 2 

listen 11 3 

lose 52 2 

lot 162 1 

love 526 3 

lovely 47 1 

low 32 2 

lunch 43 2 

machine 15 3 

mail 105 3 

manage 23 3 

matter 56 2 

may 288 3 

maybe 64 

meal 23 3 

mean 106 3 

meet 173 3 

mention 33 3 

mighty 21 1 

mile 65 2 

mind 83 1 

minute 79 3 

miss 45 2 

moment 16 2 

money 98 3 

month 124 2 

mother 275 2 

move 78 2 

music 22 3 

myself 80 1 



II 


II 


c 


II 


III 


c 


II 


II 




II 


III 




II 


II 




II 


IV 




II 


I 


AC 


II 


III 




II 


III 


C 


II 


II 


A 


III 


II 


AC 


II 
III 


II 
II 


AC 


II 


II 


C 


II 
III 


III 
II 


A 


II 


I 


C 


II 


II 


C 


II 


I 


AC 


III 


II 




II 


II 




I 


II 


C 


I 


II 


AC 


I 






II 


III 


C 


II 


II 




II 


II 


C 


II 


III 


A 


III 


II 




II 


II 


AC 


II 


II 


AC 


II 


IV 




III 


II 




II 


I 


AC 


II 


II 


AC 


III 


I 


A 


II 


II 




II 


II 


C 


II 


II 




I 


II 


C 


II 


II 




III 


II 


C 


II 


I 


AC 


I 


II 


AC 


I 


II 


AC 


II 


II 


AC 


III 


II 




I 


II 





1 68 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

name 52 

nature 10 

near 54 

nearly 38 

necessary 32 

neck 48 

neither 12 

nerve 11 

nine 58 

noise 11 

none 33 

noon 76 

north 132 

note 35 

notice 22 

number 55 

o'clock 162 

offer 27 

office 72 

often 70 

oh 54 

once 96 

open 55 

order. . 63 

otherwise 16 

our 401 

ourselves 26 

outside 12 

owe 22 

pa 137 

pack 30 

package 20 

paint 9 

paper 105 

park 32 

parlor 30 

party ^ . 47 

pass 60 

past 53 

pen 17 

per 38 

perhaps 110 

person 34 

piano 18 

pick 17 

picture 95 

pie 30 

piece 62 



III 



IV 



VI 



2 


II 


I 


A 


2 


III 


I 


C 


2 


II 


I 


C 


1 


II 


II 




3 


III 


I 


A 


2 


II 


III 


C 


3 


III 


II 




3 


III 


II 




2 


II 


II 


c 


3 


II 


III 


c 


2 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


I 


II 


c 


2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


I 


AC 


2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


I 


II 


A 


3 


II 


II 


AC 


3 


II 


I 


AC 


2 


II 


II 


C 


1 


II 


II 




3 


I 


II 


A 


2 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


II 


I 


AC 




III 


II 




2 


II 


I 


AC 


1 


II 


III 




1 


II 


III 


C 


3 


II 


II 






III 


II 




2 


II 


III 




2 


II 


IV 




3 


III 


II 


c 


2 


II 


II 


AC 


1 


III 


II 




3 


II 


III 




2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


I 


A 


2 


II 


I 


C 


2 


II 


III 


C 




III 


II 




3 


II 


II 


A 


2 


II 


III 


AC 


3 


III 


II 




2 


II 


III 




3 


II 


III 


AC 


2 


II 


II 


C 


3 


II 


II 


C 



WORD LISTS 



169 



I II 

pillow 28 

pin 18 

plan 70 

play 172 

pleasant 4 . . . . 61 

please 89 

plenty 21 

point 18 

poor 84 

porch 27 

possible 48 

post 29 

postscript 57 

potato 33 

power 8 

prepare 18 

present 60 

price 43 

probably 85 

professor 13 

promise 33 

pull 30 

quarter 25 

question 52 

quick 17 

quiet 26 

quit 36 

rain 104 

raise 22 

rather 101 

reach 64 

read 179 

ready 100 

real 59 

realize 26 

really 79 

reason 46 

receive 148 

red 39 

regard 38 

remain 19 

remember 98 

rent 62 

report 18 

request 9 

return 72 

rich 14 

ride 84 



III 


IV V VI 


3 


II IV 


2 


II IV c 


2 


II 


AC 


2 


II I 




3 


II I] 


[ AC 


2 


II I 


AC 


2 


II II 


C 


2 


III I] 


C 


2 


II I 


[ c 


2 


II II 




3 


II I 


A 


3 


II I 


A 


2 


II I 




3 


II II] 


[ C 


2 


III I 


C 


3 


III I 




3 


II I 


AC 


3 


III I 


C 


1 


II I 


AC 


2 


II II 




3 


II I 


[ AC 


2 


II II 




3 


II I 


C 


3 


II I 


[ AC 


2 


II II 


C 


3 


III I 


[ c 


1 


III I 




3 


I I 


[ AC 


3 


II I 


c 


2 


II I 


[ C 


2 


III ] 


AC 


2 


II V 


[ AC 


3 


I I 


AC 


3 


11 r 


C 


2 


in 1 




3 


11 1 


: c 


3 


11 1 


A 


3 


11 1 


AC 


2 


11 11 


AC 


2 


11 1 


A 


2 


in 


AC 


2 


11 


AC 


2 


11 1 


[ C 


2 


in 1 


[ A 


1 


in 1 


A 


2 


11 3 


A 


1 


in i] 


C 


3 


11 u 


C 



170 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

ring 16 

road 16 

rock 26 

roll 14 

roof 13 

room 240 

safe 13 

satisfy 29 

save 46 

scare 10 

school 231 

seat 34 

second 47 

seem 274 

select 9 

sell 29 

send 385 

serve 30 

service 45 

set 38 

settle 39 

seventy 22 

sew 69 

shall 612 

shop 31 

short 91 

sick 132 

side 90 

sight 24 

sign 18 

silk 15 

since 185 

sister 123 

sit 95 

sixty 28 

size 28 

skirt 46 

sleep 104 

small 76 

smoke 34 

snow 23 

something 154 

sometime 71 

son 12 

sore 33 

sorry 92 

sort 32 

sound 24 



III I 


V V VI 


3 II 


I II 


AC 


3 ] 


I III 


C 


2 I 


I II 




2 I 


I III 




3 ] 


I II 




2 


I II 


AC 


1 I 


I III 


C 


3 I 


I III 




2 I] 


I II 




2 I 


I III 




2 


I II 


AC 


2 ] 


I III 




2 I 




AC 


2 I 


I II 


AC 


2 11 


I II 


A 


3 11 


I II 


C 


3 


I II 


AC 


2 1 


I II 


C 


3 II 




A 


2 I 


I II 


A 


2 I 


I I] 


C 


1 I 


I III 


C 


3 I 




c 


3 I 




AC 


2 ] 


I II 




2 I 




AC 




I III 


C 


2 1 


I II 


C 


3 1 


I II 


C 


3 I] 


I II 

I IV 


C 


3 


I II 


AC 


2 I 


I I] 


c 


2 ] 


I III 




1 I 


I IV 


c 


3 I 


I II 


A 


2 I 


I IV 


c 


3 I 


I II] 


c 


1 I 


I I] 


AC 


2 11 


I I] 


c 


2 1 


I I] 


c 


1 


I II 


A 


2 1 


I I] 


c 


3 i; 


I I] 




3 1 


I II] 




3 1 


I I] 


A 


2 


I II] 




2 I 


I II 


C 



WORD LISTS 



171 



I II 

south 30 

speak 76 

special 18 

spell 29 

spoil 14 

spot 12 

spring 44 

stair 71 

stand 83 

state 25 

stay 215 

step 30 

stick 18 

still 105 

stock 34 

stop 124 

store 47 

story 42 

stove 33 

street 181 

strike 24 

strong 43 

student 16 

study 41 

stuff 29 

style 18 

success 16 

suggest 9 

suit 91 

summer 79 

sun 24 

supper 94 

surprise 39 

sweet . . . . . 40 

table 39 

taste 15 

teach 37 

teacher 90 

ten 107 

terrible 52 

thank 31 

thick 11 

thin.... 21 

third 55 

thirty 39 

thoroughly 11 

throw 24 

ticket 37 



III 



IV 



V 



2 


II 


3 


II 


2 


III 


2 


II 


1 


III 


2 


III 


2 


II 


3 


II 


2 


II 


2 


II 


2 


I 


2 


II 


2 


II 


2 


I 


2 


II 


2 


I 


2 


II 


2 


II 


2 


II 


2 


I 


2 


II 


2 


II 


2 


III 


3 


II 


2 


III 


3 


II 


3 


III 


2 


III 


3 


I 


3 


II 


1 


II 


3 


I 


2 


II 


3 


II 


2 


II 


2 


II 


3 


III 


2 


III 


2 


II 


3 


II 


2 


II 


2 


III 


3 


II 


2 


II 


2 


II 


1 


III 


3 


II 


3 


III 



VI 

c 

AC 
A 



C 
C 

AC 
A 



C 
AC 

C 
AC 

C 

c 

AC 
C 
C 



AC 
A 
C 

AC 



A 

C 

AC 

C 

AC 
C 
A 
A 
C 
C 



172 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

tight 15 

till 103 

tire 112 

together 73 

tomorrow 170 

top 21 

treat 20 

tree 36 

trip 100 

trouble 93 

trunk 39 

turn 69 

twelve 29 

twenty 105 

twice 34 

uncle 72 

under 42 

understand 47 

university 31 

unless 57 

until 240 

upon 22 

usual 38 

vacation 10 

view 16 

waist 52 

wait 113 

walk 108 

wall 23 

warm 71 

wash 117 

waste 14 

watch 19 

water 54 

wear 112 

weather 77 

west 35 

whatever 24 

whether 102 

white 67 

who 208 

whole 54 

why 80 

wife 45 

win 22 

wind 28 

window 35 

winter 72 



III 



IV 



V 



VI 



2 


II 


III 


c 


2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


II 


c 


3 


II 


I 




2 


I 


II 


AC 


1 


I 


II 


C 


2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


III 


C 


1 


II 


II 




3 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


II 


III 




2 


I 


II 


C 


3 


II 


III 


C 


3 


II 


I 


C 


3 


II 


III 


C 


3 


I 


II 


C 


2 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


II 




3 


II 


I 


A 


2 


III 


I 


A 


3 


II 


II 




3 


III 


II 




3 


III 


II 




3 


II 


IV 




3 


II 


I 


A 


3 


n\ 


II 


C 


2 


II 


C 


2 


II 


II 


C 


2 


II 


III 


C 


3 


II 


II 


C 


3 


II 


III 


AC 


3 


II 


II 


C 


3 


I 


II 


AC 


3 


II 


I 


AC 


2 


II 


II 


AC 


2 


II 


II 




2 


II 


I 


AC 


2 


I 


II 


AC 


1 


II 


I 


AC 


3 


II 


II 


C 


2 


II 


II 


A 


3 


II 


II 


C 


3 


III 


II 


C 


2 


II 


IV 


C 


3 


II 


II 




2 


II 


II 


C 



WORD LISTS 



*72> 



I II III IV 

without 104 2 I 

woman 50 3 

wonder 96 3 I 

wonderful 28 2 II 

word 74 2 I 

work 357 2 I 

world 28 2 II 

worry 52 3 I 

worth 40 2 I 

wrong 27 3 II 

yard 30 2 II 

yellow 11 3 I 

yes 56 1 I 

young 104 3 I 

yourself 21 1 II 



I 

III 

II 

II 

I 

I 

I 

II 
I 

II 
II 
III 
II 
II 
II 



VI 

AC 

AC 

A 

C 

c 

AC 
AC 

A 
C 

c 
c 

A 

c 



LIST III 



2207 WORDS WORDS USED BY LESS THAN A MA- 
JORITY OF TPTE CORRESPONDENTS 
I II III IV V VI 

absence 5 3 III III A 

absent 4 3 II 

absolutely 7 IV II 

academy 3 3 IV IV 

accent.... 3 2 III IV 

accommodation 6 1 III 

accompany 7 3 III III 

accomplish 15 2 III III 

accord 6 2 III III 

accuse 2 3 IV IV 

accustom 2 2 III 

ache 28 3 II IV 

acid 3 3 III 

acknowledge 3 3 IV IV 

acquaint 8 2 III III 

acquaintance 4 3 III IV 

acquire 3 3 III IV 

acre 5 3 IV III 

action 10 2 IV III 

active 2 2 IV IV 

actually 5 1 III II 

acute 3 2 III 

addition 4 3 III III 

additional 4 1 IV III 

adjoin 2 1 III 



174 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

I II 

adjourn 2 

administration 3 

admire 6 

admission 2 

admit 7 

adopt 6 

advance 7 

advertise 4 

advice 4 

advise 7 

affair 17 

affect 3 

affectionate 4 

affectionately 17 

afford 12 

afire 2 

agency 5 

agent 13 

aggravate 5 

agree 15 

agreeable 6 

aid 6 

ail 3 

aim 4 

aisle 2 

alarm 4 

album 2 

alcohol 3 

algebra 4 

alike 4 . 

alive 7 

alley 2 

aloud 6 

alphabet 2 

altar 2 

alter 5 

alteration 2 

although 51 

altitude 5 

altogether 6 

amateur 2 

ambition 5 

amuse 4 

anesthetic 2 

angel 3 

angry 6 

animal 7 

ankle 5 



[II 


IV 


V VI 


3 




III 


1 




III 


1 


II 




2 


IV 


IV 


2 




II 


2 


IV 


III 


1 


IV 


III 


3 


III 


III 


2 


III 


IV 


1 


III 


III 


2 


III 


II 


3 


IV 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


1 


III 




3 


III 


IV 




IV 


IV 


2 




III 


2 


III 


III 


2 


III 




3 


III 


III c 


2 


IV 


II c 


3 


IV 


II 


1 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


3 


III 
III 




2 


III 


III 


2 


III 




2 




II 


3 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


3 




III 


1 


IV 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV c 


3 


III 


c 


3 


III 


IV 



WORD LISTS 175 

I II III IV V VI 

anniversary 4 

announce 3 

announcement 3 

annually 2 

anybody 12 

anyhow 20 

anywhere 6 

apart 8 

apartment 12 

apiece 9 

apparatus 6 

appeal 4 

appear 9 

appearance 2 

appetite 6 

apple 24 

application 5 

apply 4 

appoint 4 

appointment 3 

appreciative 2 

approach 4 

appropriate 4 

approve 7 

approximately 3 

apron 15 

apt 2 

area 2 

argue 4 

argument 6 

arm 57 

arrange 12 

arrangement 10 

arrival 5 

art 6 

article 7 

artificially 2 

ashamed 5 

aside 6 

assembly 3 

assist 5 

assistant 4 

associate 4 

association 9 

assume 2 

assure 11 

attack 6 

attendance 5 



3 


III 






3 


IV 


IV 






IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 






III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 






III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 






III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


III 




3 


III 


III 


A 


3 




III 




3 


III 






2 


II 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 


A 


2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 


A 


1 


III 


IV 






IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 






IV 


IV 




3 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 






3 


IV 


III 




3 


IV 


II 




2 


II 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


II 


A 


1 


III 


II 




3 


IV 


III 




2 


II 






2 


III 


III 


A 




IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




1 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




3 




III 




2 


III 


III 


A 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 




II 


A 


2 


IV 


II 




2 


III 


III 





176 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

attention 8 

attentive < 2 

attic 5 

attorney 3 

attraction 5 

auction 2 

autobiography 2 

average 7 

aviary 2 

avoid 5 

await 7 

awake 12 

awaken 3 

awhile 16 

bachelor 7 

backward 6 

bacon 8 

bag 11 

baggage 5 

bake 44 

balance 7 

bald 3 

ball 29 

banana 2 

band 11 

banquet 19 

bar 2 

bare 10 

barely 5 

barn 13 

barrel 6 

barrier 2 

base 16 

baseball 16 

basement 3 

bat 8 

bathe 8 

bathroom 14 

bawl 2 

bay 8 

beach 10 

bead 5 

bean 18 

bear 20 

beautifully 7 

beauty 5 

bedroom 16 

bedtime 3 



III 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


III 


II 


A 


1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


III 




1 


III 


III 




3 


III 






2 




III 




2 


III 


III 




1 


III 






2 


IV 


III 




3 


IV 


II 


A 


2 


III 


III 




1 


III 


IV 






III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 






IV 


III 




3 


III 






1 


III 






2 


III 






3 


II 




c 


3 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 






III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 






1 




III 




2 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 




c 




II 


IV 




2 




III 




1 


III 


III 




3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 






2 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


II 


c 


1 


III 






3 


III 


III 




2 


III 








IV 


IV 





WORD LISTS 177 



1 11 

bee 2 

beef 7 

beer 4 

beforehand 3 

beg 7 

behave 3 

behind 11 

behold 2 

bell 8 

belong 15 

below 7 

belt 9 

bend 5 

benefit 13 

berry 10 

berth 11 

bet 7 

betimes 2 

beyond 6 

bicycle 2 

bid 8 

bind 9 

bird 5 

birth 2 

biscuit . 8 

blank ^. . 4 

blanket 6 

blaze 2 

bleed 2 

bless 8 

blind 3 

blister 3 

bloody 2 

bloom 4 

blossom 6 

blot 5 

blouse 4 

bluff 7 

blush 5 

boarder 6 

boat 20 

boil 15 

bone 6 

bonnet 2 

bookcase 5 

border 3 

borrow 13 

boss 6 



[II 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


III 






2 


III 




c 


1 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


III 


A 


2 


III 






2 


III 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 






2 


III 


III 




3 


III 


III 




2 


III 




c 


3 


III 

II 

III 


IV 




3 


III 






3 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 




2 




III 


c 


3 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






2 




III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 




c 


2 


III 


IV 






IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 






1 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 






III 


III 




3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


II 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


III 




3 


III 






1 


III 


III 




3 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


II 





178 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

bother 17 

bow 5 

bowel 11 

bowl 3 

brace 2 

braid 5 

brain 5 

branch 2 

brand 2 

breast 2 

breath 3 

breathe 11 

brick 9 

bride 2 

bridge 10 

bright 15 

brightly 2 

brilliant 2 

brisk 2 

broach.. 2 

bronchitis 6 

bruise 3 

brush 8 

bug 3 

buggy 4 

bugle 2 

bull 3 

bum 5 

bump 2 

bunch 14 

bundle 7 

bungalow 7 

burden 4 

burial 4 

burner 6 

burst 2 

bury 7 

bus 11 

bush 3 

bushel 9 

bust 2 

button 19 

cab 4 

cabbage 7 

cabin 4 

cafeteria 14 

calculation 2 

calendar 2 



III 


IV 


V 


VI 


1 


II 


IV 




3 


III 
III 


IV 




3 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 






3 


III 


II 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




2 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 






2 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




1 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 






III 


IV 




1 




III 




2 


III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 




III 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




2 


III 
III 






2 


III 






2 


III 








III 


III 




2 


III 






3 


II 
III 




c 


2 


III 




c 


1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 






3 


III 


IV 






III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 





WORD LISTS 



I II 

caller 8 

camel 2 

camera 3 

camp 10 

camphor 3 

cancer 2 

candidate 5 

candy 19 

canoe 5 

canon 6 

canvas 2 

cap 11 

capacity 6 

cape 4 

capital 2 

capitol 10 

captain 4 

carbon 4 

carefully 4 

careless 2 

carelessness 3 

carnation 3 

carpenter 3 

carpet 4 

carriage 7 

cartoon 2 

cash 7 

casserole 7 

cast 3 

cat 4 

catalogue 3 

catarrh 4 

cave 6 

ceiling 4 

celebrate 2 

celebration 2 

cellar 12 

cement 4 

cemetery 4 

center 7 

central 2 

chain 4 

chairman 2 

channel 4 

chapel 24 

chaperon 12 

chapter 2 

character 4 



1SI 


'S 




179 


[II 


IV 


V 


VI 




III 






2 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






1 


III 






3 


IV 


III 




2 


II 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


III 




2 


III 






3 


IV 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 

III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 
III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


IV 


III 


A 


2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


III 


c 


3 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 


A 


2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 




AC 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


IV 


III 





i8o THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

charity 3 

charm 7 

chase 5 

chautauqua 17 

cheaply 2 

check 14 

cheek 10 

cheerful 8 

chest 2 

chief 2 

childhood 4 

childish 2 

chill 7 

chilly 5 

chimney 2 

china 4 

chip 2 

chocolate 3 

choice 9 

choir 18 

choke 2 

choose 6 

chore 9 

cigar 3 

circle 5 

circular 4 

circumstance 5 

circus 10 

cistern 12 

citizen 2 

civil 4 

claim 6 

classical 2 

clause 2 

clerk 6 

climate 10 

climb 6 

clip 15 

closely 2 

closet 20 

cloud 5 

cloudy 9 

club 15 

coach 8 

coal , 17 

coast 10 

collar 11 

collect 6 



[II 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


II 




3 


III 


III 




1 


III 


III 




r 


III 




A 


2 


III 


II 




1 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 






IV 


IV 




3 


II 






1 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




1 


III 






3 


III 






2 


III 


II 




3 


IV 


III 




2 


III 






3 


III 


II 


c 


1 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 






2 


III 


III 




3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




2 




III 




3 




III 




2 


III 


III 


A 


1 


III 






2 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


II 






IV 


IV 




3 


II 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




1 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


III 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 





WORD LISTS 181 

I II III IV V VI 

collection 7 

college 35 

comb 11 

combination 2 

combine 3 

comedy 3 

comfortably 6 

commence 8 

commencement 10 

comment 4 

commission 3 

committee.. ^ 4 

communication 4 

companion 3 

comparison 2 

complain 8 

complete 9 

completely 4 

compliment 4 

concert 4 

conclude 9 

conduct 10 

conductor 3 

confess 4 

confidential 5 

confine 3 

congenial 3 

congress 2 

connect 6 

connection 13 

consent 5 

consequence 4 

consequently 4 

consider 10 

considerable 13 

considerably 8 

consideration 3 

consist 6 

conspicuous 2 

constant 3 

constantly 6 

construct 2 

consult 2 

consumption 5 

contain 8 

contemplate 2 

contend 2 

content 14 



1 


III 


IV 


2 


IV 


II 


3 


III 


IV 


1 




III 


1 


IV 


III 


3 


IV 


IV 




III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 




III 


III 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


1 


IV 


III 


1 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


II 




IV 


IV 


3 


III 


III 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


III 


3 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 




IV 


III 


2 


IV 


III 


2 


IV 


III 


1 


IV 


IV 


3 


III 




1 


III 


III 


2 


IV 


III 


2 


IV 

III 


III 


2 


III 


II 


1 


IV 


III 


1 


III 


III 


2 


IV 


IV 


1 


III 


III 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 




IV 


III 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


III 


1 




III 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


III 



1 82 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

contest 16 

continually 6 

contract 13 

contrary 2 

contrast 2 

contribution 3 

control 4 

convenient 3 

convention 8 

conversation 6 

convert 2 

convey 2 

conveyance 5 

convince 5 

cooky 8 

corner 13 

corporation 2 

correct 12 

corset 5 

cottage 5 

cotton 7 

couch 13 

cough 28 

counter 4 

county 15 

courage 3 

court 17 

cousin 36 

cow 4 

cozy 2 

crack 4 

cracker 5 

cramp 6 

cranberry 2 

crawl 2 

cream 22 

create 2 

creature y 2 

credit 7 

crestfallen 2 

critical 4 

criticize 4 

crochet 2 

crocodile 3 

crop 8 

crow 2 

crowd 18 

crown 3 



III 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




2 


III 


II 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


IV 


II 




2 


III 


IV 


A 


2 




II 




2 


III 


II 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


II 




1 


III 






3 


III 


III 


c 


2 




III 




3 


III 


III 




1 


III 






3 


III 






3 


III 




c 


3 


III 


III 




3 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


II 




3 


IV 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


III 




3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


III 




3 


III 






2 


III 






2 


III 






1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




3 


II 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 






IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


III 




2 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




2 


III 






3 


III 


II 




2 


III 


IV 





WORD LISTS 183 



I II III IV V VI 

cruel 2 3 IV IV C 

crutch 5 2 III IV 

cry 60 2 III IV 

cucumber 2 3 III 

cuff 3 1 III 

cultivate 5 2 III 

culture 3 2 III IV 

cupboard 8 3 III IV 

curly 6 IV IV 

currant 2 3 III 

curtain 20 3 III IV 

cushion 5 3 III IV 

custard 13 3 III 

custom 7 3 IV III C 

customary 2 2 III 

cute 13 1 III IV 

daddy 20 III 

daily 13 3 III II C 

dainty 2 3 III 

dairy 5 3 III IV 

damage 6 3 III IV 

damp 2 2 III C 

dancer 2 IV IV 

dandy 5 1 III III 

danger 9 3 IV II C 

dangerous 3 IV III 

dare 10 2 III III C 

darkness 3 2 IV III 

darling 42 1 III IV 

darn 6 2 III IV 

daytime 3 IV IV 

dean 3 1 III 

debate 18 2 IV III 

debt 4 3 IV III (v 

deceitful 2 1 IV IV 

decent 6 2 III IV 

decision 5 2 III III 

deck 3 2 III IV 

declamation 4 1 IV IV 

declare 2 2 III 

decline 4 1 IV IV 

decorate 3 3 IV IV 

decoration 3 1 III IV 

deed 2 2 III 

deep 10 2 III II C 

deer 2 2 III 

defeat 6 1 II C 

definite 2 1 III 



'184 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

I II 

definitely 5 

delay 11 

delight 9 

delightful 10 

delightfully 2 

deliver 8 

delivery 7 

demonstrate 3 

dentist 21 

deny 5 

depart 2 

department 4 

depend 5 

deposit 5 

depot 34 

deprive 2 

descend 3 

describe 5 

description 3 

descriptive 2 

desert 6 

deserve 5 

design 2 

desirable 2 

desire 13 

desk 8 

desperately 2 

despondent 2 

dessert 3 

destination 2 

destitute 2 

destroy 2 

detail 6 

detain 3 

determine 11 

develop 2 

development 2 

devil 8 

diamond 2 

dictionary 4 

diet 2 

difficulty 2 

dig 6 

dine 17 

diner 5 

diploma 2 

direction 10 

directly 6 



[II 


IV 


V VI 




IV 


II 


2 


III 


III 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 
III 


IV 


1 


III 


III 


1 


III 


II 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


c 


2 




II 


2 


IV 


IV 


3 


III 


IV A 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


III 


3 


III 


III 




IV 


IV 


3 




III 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 


3 


IV 


III 


3 


III 


IV c 


2 


IV 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


II AC 


2 


III 


III 




IV 


IV 


1 




III 


3 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


III 


3 


III 


- 


2 


III 


Ill 


3 


III 


A 


2 




III 




III 


III 


3 


IV 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


3 


III 




1 




III 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 




III 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


III A 


1 


IV 


II 



I II 

dirt 16 

dirty 31 

disagreeable 8 

disappear 2 

disappointment 4 

disaster 4 

discharge 2 

discord 2 

discourage 7 

discover 3 

discuss 3 

discussion 2 

disease 7 

disgrace 2 

disgust 4 

disjoint 2 

dislike 3 

dismal 2 

dismiss 7 

dismissal 5 

display 2 

dispose 4 

disposition 2 

dispute 2 

distance 15 

distant 5 

district 11 

disturb 3 

ditch 5 

diversion 2 

dividend 4 

division 2 

dizzy . 3 

dog 9 

doll 11 

dome 2 

domestic 4 

donation 2 

dose 4 

double 7 

doubtless 5 

dozen 25 

draft 26 

drag 3 

draw 17 

drawer 24 

drayage 2 

dread 7 



1ST 


'S 




185 


ni 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


in 


IV 


c 




in 


III 


c 


2 


in 


III 




3 




III 






IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 


c 


2 




III 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




2 




II 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 








IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 


c 


2 


III 






3 




III 




2 




III 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 






2 


III 






1 




III 




3 


III 


III 




1 


III 


IV 




3 


II 


III 




3 


IV 


III 




2 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 




III 




2 




III 




2 


III 






2 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 


IV 




1 


III 






2 


IV 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




1 


III 


III 




3 


III 


II 


c 


2 


II 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


II 


c 


3 


III 
III 


IV 




2 


III 







186 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

dreadful 7 

dreadfully 4 

dream 20 

dresser 4 

dressmaker 3 

drift 4 

drink 16 

driver 5 

drown 3 

drug 2 

due 9 

duet 2 

dull 4 

dusty 3 

dwell 2 

ear 10 

earn 8 

earnest 9 

ease 2 

easily 14 

east 24 

eastern 6 

easy 19 

economical 3 

economize 3 

edge 4 

edition 2 

educate 4 

education 12 

effort 16 

egg 25 

eighteen 18 

eighth 3 

eighty 11 

elaborate 3 

elbow 6 

elect 18 

election 7 

elope 2 

elsewhere 3 

embroider 3 

embroidery 4 

emergency 2 

employ 8 

employee 11 

employer 2 

employment 5 

empty 4 



III 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


III 


IV 






III 


IV 




3 


IV 


III 




1 


III 
III 


IV 


c 


2 




II 




2 


III 
III 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


II 


c 


3 


III 


III 


c 


3 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




2 


II 


IV 


c 


3 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


II 


A 


2 


IV 


II 


AC 


3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 






2 


III 


III 




2 


III 


II 




2 


III 


II 




2 


IV 

III 


IV 




3 


III 






2 


III 






2 


III 






1 


IV 


III 




2 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




3 


III 







WORD LISTS 187 

I 11 ill iv V VI 

enable 2 

encourage 3 

encouragement 3 

engage 8 

engine 11 

engineer 10 

enjoyable 6 

enlarge 2 

enroll 3 

enrollment 2 

enter... 10 

entertain 11 

enthusiasm 2 

entire 8 

entirely 22 

entitle 3 

envelop 19 

envy 4 

epistle 3 

equally 3 

erect 2 

errand , 9 

error 4 

escape 4 

escort 2 

especial 2 

essential 2 

establish 5 

estimate 3 

eve 18 

event 6 

eventually 2 

everlasting 2 

everywhere 5 

evil 2 

exact 5 

exactly 8 

examine 7 

exceed 4 

excellent 9 

exceptionally 2 

exchange 2 

excitement 5 

excursion 12 

exercise 25 

exhaust 3 

exhibit 3 

exhibition. 2 



[II 


IV 


V 


1 


IV 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


1 




III 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


1 


III 


III 


1 


III 


III 


1 


III 




2 




III 




IV 


IV 


2 


III 


III 


2 


III 


III 


2 




III 


2 


IV 


III 


1 


II 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


2 


II 


IV 


2 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




IV 


III 


3 


III 




3 


III 




3 




III 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


IV 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


IV 

III 


IV 


2 


III 


III 




IV 


IV 




IV 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


3 




III 


3 


IV 


III 


1 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


3 


III 


II 




IV 


IV 


2 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


III 


3 


III 


II 


3 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 


3 




III 



188 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

expectation 4 

expensive 12 

expire 2 

explain 16 

exposition 2 

exposure 2 

expression 2 

extend 4 

extent 3 

extreme 3 

factory 20 

faculty 14 

fade 5 

failure 3 

faint . 2 

fairly 12 

faith 8 

faithful 3 

false 2 

familiar. 2 

famous 2 

fancy 9 

fare 20 

farm 15 

farmer 5 

fascinate 2 

fashion 7 

fasten 5 

fault 17 

favor 8 

favorable. 4 

favorably 2 

favorite 3 

fearful 7 

feast 2 

feat 3 

feather 5 

feature 3 

fee 4 

feed.... 10 

fellowship 2 

fence 8 

ferry 6 

fever 29 

field 7 

fierce 8 

fifth 5 

fig 2 



III 



IV 



V 



VI 



1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


II 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


II 


c 


1 


IV 


IV 




1 




III 




1 


IV 


IV 






III 


IV 




1 


IV 


III 




2 


IV 


III 




2 


III 


III 


A 


1 


III 


II 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 


c 


2 


III 






2 


III 


III 




2 


III 


II 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 




III 


c 


3 




III 




3 


III 






2 


III 


III 




3 


III 


II 




2 


III 




c 


2 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


II 




2 


IV 


III 
III 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




3 


III 


III 




2 




II 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


III 






IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




1 


III 







WORD LISTS 189 



I II 

figure 15 

file 5 

fin 2 

final 6 

finally 23 

finance 4 

financial 4 

finger 9 

firecracker 3 

fireman 3 

firm 2 

fish 12 

flannel 3 

flavor 2 

flight 3 

flour 3 

flower 14 

fly 24 

foggy 6 

fold 4 

foliage 4 

fond 5 

food.: 16 

fool 16 

foolish 20 

football 36 

force 6 

foreign 4 

forever 6 

forgive 4 

fork 2 

form 12 

formal 4 

fort 2 

fortunate 9 

fortune 5 

forty 28 

forward 21 

foundation 8 

fourteen 7 

frame 12 

frank 4 

fraternity 3 

freak 2 

freeze 6 

freight 9 

frequent 2 

frequently 5 



III 


IV 


V 


VI 


3 


III 


II 


c 


2 


III 


III 




1 


III 






2 


IV 


II 




3 


III 


III 


A 


2 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


III 




2 


III 
III 


IV 


c 




IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




2 


II 




c 


3 


III 






3 


III 






3 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


II 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


IV 






IV 


III 


c 


1 


IV 


III 




2 


IV 


II 


c 


3 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 




c 


1 


III 


II 


AC 


1 


IV 


IV 






IV 


IV 




3 


III 


II 




3 


III 


III 




3 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 


IV 


A 


1 


III 


II 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


II 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 


III 




3 


III 








III 


IV 





ipo THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

I II III IV V VI 

fresh 16 

freshman 6 

friendly 6 

friendship . . . . ,. 2 

frighten 2 

frost 9 

fruit 26 

fry 12 

fudge 15 

fully 8 

function 2 

fund 2 

funeral 9 

fur 7 

furnace 4 

furnish 18 

furniture 8 

fuss 4 

future 10 

gain 8 

gallery 8 

gang 2 

garden 4 

garment 4 

gas 6 

gasoline 7 

gasp 2 

gay 6 

gem 9 

generally 7 

generous 2 

gentle 3 

gentleman 6 

genuine 3 

geography 5 

geometry 16 

gift 8 

giggle 2 

glance 3 

gloomy 8 

glorious 3 

glory 2 

glove 6 

glue 3 

gold 11 

golden 7 

goodby 59 

goodness . , , 7 



2 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




2 




III 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 






III 


III 


A 


2 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




o 


III 


IV 




3 


III 






2 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


II 




3 


III 






1 


III 






2 


III 


II 


c 


3 


III 


III 




2 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 




c 


2 


III 






1 


III 






1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 


A 


3 


IV 


IV 




3 




II 




1 


IV 


III 




2 


III 


III 




1 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 






III 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 


AC 


2 


IV 


III 






II 


IV 




1 


II 


IV 


c 



WORD LISTS 191 



I II 

goodnight 38 

goody 3 

goose 5 

gorge 6 

gospel 3 

govern 2 

government 3 

gown 17 

grab 3 

gradually 2 

graduate 5 

grain 4 

grandma 29 

grandmother 3 

grandpa 14 

grandparent 2 

grant 3 

grape 13 

grass 18 

grate 7 

grave 6 

gravy 5 

gray 20 

grease 2 

greatly 12 

greet 4 

griddle 3 

grin 2 

grocer 2 

grocery 11 

groom 2 

grove 2 

guard 5 

guest 8 

guide 11 

guild 4 

guilty 3 

gum 2 

gun 4 

guy.... 4 

gymnasium 6 

gymnastic 2 

ha 14 

habit 10 

ham 2 

handkerchief 14 

handle 6 

handy 4 



[II 


IV 


V 


VI 




III 


III 






IV 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 




c 


3 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 






IV 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 






III 


IV 






III 






2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 








III 


III 


c 


1 


III 






2 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 




c 




III 


II 




2 


III 






1 


III 






1 


III 






3 


III 






2 


III 




c 


1 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


IV 


IV 




2 




III 




2 


III 






2 


IV 


III 
III 




1 


III 


III 




1 




III 




1 


III 






3 


III 


III 




1 


III 






2 


II 


IV 




3 


III 
III 


II 


c 



192 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

I II 

happily 4 

happiness 5 

hardship 2 

harm 2 

harmony 5 

harness 2 

harvest 3 

hash 3 

haste 4 

hasten 2 

haul 4 

hay 6 

headache 24 

heal 3 

healthy 5 

heap 4 

heartfelt 2 

hearty 3 

heaven 4 

heavily 6 

heel.... 3 

height 5 

hello 5 

helper 3 

helpful 4 

hen 5 

hence 5 

herald 2 

hereafter 3 

hesitate 3 

hide 10 

highly 5 

hike 3 

hill.... 12 

hilly 3 

hinge 2 

hint 2 

hire 14 

history 18 

hit 9 

hoarse 3 

hog 5 

holder 2 

holiday 19 

hollow 2 

holy 3 

homelike 3 

homely r 4 



III 


IV 


V 


VI 


1 


IV 


III 




2 


IV 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






2 




III 




2 


III 






2 


III 






1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




1 


II 


IV 




3 


III 






1 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 
III 






1 


III 






2 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


c 




III 


IV 






III 






1 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 






IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


II 


c 


1 


IV 


IV 






IV 


IV 




3 


III 
III 


III 


c 


2 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




3 


III 


II 




1 


III 


II 




3 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


III 


c 




IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


' 


2 


III 




c 


3 


IV 

III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 





WORD LISTS 193 



I II 

homesick 8 

honest 10 

honestly 2 

honey 3 

honor 3 

hood 2 

hook 1 . 5 

hop 2 

hopeful 3 

horn 5 

horrible 7 

horrid 3 

horseback 3 

hose 3 

hospitable 2 

hospital 16 

household 7 

housekeeper 4 

housekeeping 6 

housework 3 

hug 31 

huge 2 

human 6 

humble 3 

hundred 17 

hungry 8 

hunt 12 

husband 25 

hustle 10 

hymn 5 

hysterics 4 

ice 20 

icy 2 

ideal 2 

identify 2 

ignoramus 4 

ill 8 

illness 7 

imitate 3 

immediately 7 

immense 4 

immensely 5 

impatient 2 

importance 6 

important 6 

impose 4 

impress 6 

impression , 5 



III 


IV 


V 


VI 




III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 






IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 




III 


A 


2 


III 






1 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 




III 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




2 


III 








IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


II 




A 


2 


III 
III 


III 






III 


IV 






III 






1 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


II 




2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


II 


IV 




2 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 






2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




1 




III 




1 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 


AC 


1 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 






IV 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


III 


A 


2 


III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


II 




2 


III 


III 





194 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II : 

impressive 2 

improvement 4 

inaugurate 3 

inch 9 

incidentally 5 

include.. 18 

inconvenience 4 

increase 11 

indeed . 12 

indefinitely 2 

indescribable 2 

indigestion 2 

indigo 2 

individual 5 

industrious 4 

industry 2 

influence 9 

inform 7 

informal 3 

information 4 

injure 2 

injury 4 

ink 5 

innocent 2 

inquire 10 

inspect.. . , 2 

inspiration 2 

install 2 

instance 6 

instant 2 

institute 21 

instruct 2 

insult 2 

insurance 16 

insure 4 

intention 2 

intermission 2 

interrupt 5 

interruption 5 

intimate 5 

introduce 3 

introduction 3 

intrude 3 

invalid 3 

investment 2 

invitation 14 

iris 2 

itch 2 



III 


IV 


V 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 




2 




III 


2 


III 


IV 




III 


III 


2 


III 


III 




IV 


II 


3 


IV 


II 


2 


III 


II 
III 




IV 


IV 


1 


III 




1 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


3 


III 




3 


III 


II 


1 


III 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


IV 


IV 


1 




II 


2 


III 




3 


IV 


IV 


3 


III 


III 


1 


IV 


IV 


1 




III 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 




II 


3 




III 


1 


III 


IV 


2 




III 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


IV 


III 


2 




III 


1 




III 


2 


III 






IV 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


3 


IV 


III 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 




III 


3 


IV 


IV 


1 




III 


3 


III 
III 
III 


III 



VI 



AC 



WORD LISTS 195 

I II III IV V VI 

item 5 2 III IV 

itself 4 1 III III 

jam 2 2 III 

janitor 17 3 III III 

jar 2 1 IV IV 

jaw 10 1 IV IV 

jealous 13 3 III IV 

jelly 14 3 II 

jewel 2 3 III C 

joke 8 2 III III 

jolly 4 3 III IV 

journey 9 3 III III 

joy 2 2 IV IV C 

judge 17 3 III IV C 

judgment 9 3 III/ III C 

juice 5 3 IIIN C 

jump 11 2 II IV 

junior 12 3 III II 

junk 2 1 IV IV 

justice 6 2 IV III 

justify 3 2 IV III 

key 5 2 III IV 

kick 4 3 IV IV 

kidney 4 1 III 

kimono 5 1 III IV 

kindly 7 1 II A 

kindergarten 6 1 IV III 

kindness 3 III IV AC 

king 4 2 III IV 

kitten 3 2 III 

knee 11 3 III IV 

knife 3 3 III C 

knock 8 3 III III 

knowledge 4 3 IV IV C 

kodak 4 2 IV IV 

labor 8 3 III III A 

lace 18 2 III III 

lack 12 2 III II 

lake 23 2 III III 

lame 7 1 III 

lamp 4 2 III IV 

landlady 6 III III 

language 2 3 IV IV 

lantern 3 3 IV IV 

lap 16 2 III IV 

lard 4 1 III 

largely 2 IV IV 

laugh 75 3 III IV C 



196 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

I II III IV V VI 

launch 3 

launder 3 

laundry 6 

law 15 

lawn 9 

lawyer 3 

lay 40 

layer 4 

lazy 8 

lead 13 

leader 3 

leaf 9 

league 54 

lean 4 

lease 6 

leather 6 

lecture 22 

leg 13 

legging 4 

legislature 2 

lemon 4 

lemonade 4 

length 13 

lens 2 

level 5 

lie 23 

lien 2 

lift 9 

lighten 2 

likely 33 

lily 2 

limb 4 

limit i 14 

limp 2 

linen 2 

lip 6 

liquor 2 

list 12 

literary 5 

literature 7 

lively 6 

liver 2 

load 14 

loaf 3 

loan 5 

local 5 

locate 8 

location 8 



2 


III 






3 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




2 


II 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


III 




3 


IV 


III 


c 


2 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


II 


A 


2 


IV 


III 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


III 




2 


III 


II 


c 


1 


III 






2 




III 




3 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


II 


c 


2 


III 






3 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


II 




3 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 


III 




2 


III 






3 


III 




c 


2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


III 


III 


A 


2 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


II 




2 


III 






1 


III 






3 


III 






3 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




2 


III 


III 




1 


III 


IV 





WORD LISTS 197 



I II 

lock 11 

lodge 4 

logic 3 

lonely 8 

lonesome 14 

loop 3 

loose 5 

loss 8 

loud 2 

lovable 3 

lover 7 

lovingly 12 

luck 5 

lumber 2 

lump 2 

luncheon 7 

lung 16 

luxury 6 

ma 97 

mad 30 

madam 3 

magazine 9 

maid 5 

main 8 

majesty 2 

majority 6 

male 3 

mama 176 

manager 2 

manly 3 

manner 10 

manufacture 4 

marble 3 

march 2 

mark 10 

marriage 2 

marry 81 

mash 2 

mason 4 

masonic 3 

mass 3 

master 7 

mat 5 

match 6 

mathematics 2 

matron 7 

mattress 7 

meantime 2 



[II 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




1 


III 






2 


III 






2 


III 


III 




2 


III 






3 


III 




c 


3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 






IV 


III 


c 




III 


IV 




2 


III 




c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


III 






III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 


A 


3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 






3 


III 


III 




2 


III 






2 


IV 


II 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


II 




1 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


€ 


3 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 






2 


IV 


III 


AC 


2 


IV 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 






1 


IV 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


III 


II 


c 


2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 
III 







198 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

measure 8 

meat 19 

medical 3 

medicine 24 

melt 8 

member 29 

memorial 4 

memory 7 

mend 38 

mercy 3 

merely 6 

merry 6 

mess 7 

message 3 

method 4 

mid 19 

middle 20 

mild 2 

milk 14 

million 4 

mince 4 

miner 3 

minimum 2 

minister 20 

minus 2 

miserable 7 

mislead 2 

missionary 5 

misspell 2 

mistake 22 

misunderstand 4 

mitten 6 

mix 11 

mixture 3 

mob 3 

mock 2 

modern 6 

mohair 2 

monkey 2 

monthly 5 

moon 4 

moonlight 2 

moose 2 

mop 4 

moral 2 

mortgage 2 

mostly 6 

moth 3 



til 


IV 


V 


VI 


3 


III 


III 


AC 


3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 


IV 


A 


3 


11 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 

III 


II 


A 


3 
2 


III 
III 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


II 




3 


III 






1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






2 




II 




2 


III 


III 




3 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


II 




c 


1 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


c 


1 




III 




2 


III 


IV 






IV 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 


c 




IV 


IV 




3 


III 






1 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 






IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 






3 


IV 


IV 






III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 






1 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




1 


III 







WORD LISTS 199 

I II III IV V VI 

motion 6 3 III IV 

motor 7 3 IV IV 

mountain 25 3 III IV C 

mouse 5 2 III C 

mouth 17 2 III IV 

movement 3 1 III IV 

mud 10 1 III II 

murder 3 2 IV IV C 

muscle 3 3 III IV 

muscular 3 2 III 

museum , 10 3 III 

musical 8 1 III III 

muslin 4 3 III IV 

muss 3 1 III 

mutilate 3 2 III 

mystery 2 2 III 

nail 4 2 III IV C 

nap 22 1 III 

napkin 4 3 III 

narrow 7 2 III III C 

national 9 3 III III 

native 2 2 IV IV 

natural 10 3 III III 

naturally 7 1 II 

naughty 4 3 III 

navy 2 1 IV IV 

nearby 18 III 

neat 4 1 III C 

necessity 2 3 IV IV 

necktie 3 1 IV IV 

neglect 2 2 IV IV 

negro 3 2 IV IV 

neighbor 17 3 II IV 

neighborhood .2 1 III 

neighborly 2 III 

nephew 2 3 IV IV 

nervous 11 2 II IV 

newspaper 17 2 III IV C 

nicely 19 III III 

nightgown 6 III 

nineteen ! 8 3 III IV 

ninety 13 2 III IV C 

ninth 7 1 III IV 

nod ,3 III IV 

noisy 5 III 

nonsense 3 2 IV IV 

nor 18 1 III III 

normal 10 1 III III 



2oo THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

nose 37 

noticeably 2 

notify 2 

notion 6 

notwithstanding 3 

nurse 6 

nut 4 

oatmeal 3 

object 12 

objection 4 

obligate 5 

oblige 4 

observation 8 

observe 5 

occasion 7 

occasionally 4 

occupant 3 

occupy 11 

occur 8 

ocean 7 

odd 7 

offend 4 

officer 4 

official 6 

oil 17 

olive 3 

omit 2 

onto 6 

opera 6 

operation 8 

opinion 4 

opportune 2 

opportunity 15 

oppose 5 

opposite 5 

opposition 4 

orange , . — 19 

orchard 5 

ordinary 3 

organ 7 

organize , 4 

original 2 

outcome 4 

outfit 3 

outlook 2 

outrage 3 

oven 4 

overalls 6 



III 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


II 


IV 

III 


c 


3 




III 




2 


III 
III 


III 




3 


II 




c 


2 


IV 


IV 


c 


1 


IV 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 




AC 


1 


IV 


III 




2 


III 


III 




3 


IV 


III 




1 


III 


III 




2 


III 






3 


III 


II 




3 




III 




3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 


IV 




2 




II 


c 


3 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 

III 


IV 




3 


IV 


II 




1 


III 


III 




3 


IV 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


II 




2 




III 




3 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


II 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 






IV 


III 






IV 


IV 




1 




III 




3 


III 






1 


m 


IV 





WORD LISTS 201 

I II III IV V VI 

overcoat 5 1 IV III 

overdo 5 III 

overflow 2 1 III 

overhaul 2 III 

overlook 5 1 III III 

overturn 2 IV IV 

oyster 4 3 III 

pad 3 1 III 

paddle 2 3 III 

page 6 2 III IV 

pail 7 3 III 

pain 22 3 III III C 

pair 30 2 III IV A 

pale 2 3 III 

palm 2 3 IV IV 

pan 13 2 II IV 

pancake 5 IV I V 

panel 2 2 IV IV A 

pant 7 1 IV IV 

pantry 4 3 IV IV 

papa 66 1 III III 

parade 4 3 III IV 

parcel 4 3 III 

pardon 2 3 IV IV 

parent 4 3 IV III C 

partially 3 III IV 

particular 14 2 III II AC 

particularly 14 1 III II 

partly 7 1 III IV C 

passenger 8 3 III IV 

patch 3 3 III 

patent 2 1 IV IV 

path 3 2 IV IV 

patience 2 3 IV IV 

patient 7 3 III IV 

patron 2 2 IV IV 

patronize 6 1 III III 

pattern 22 3 III 

pave 5 1 III IV 

pavement 2 3 III 

payable 2 2 IV IV 

payment 6 2 IV IV 

pea 2 2 III 

peace 5 3 III II C 

peaceful 2 IV IV 

peach 9 3 III IV C 

peak 3 3 IV IV 

peanut 2 3 III 



202 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

pear 4 

peck 6 

peculiar 3 

peep 2 

peer 2 

peg 2 

pencil 5 

penny 5 

pepper 2 

perfect 15 

perfectly 28 

perform 2 

performance 4 

period 5 

peritonitis 2 

permanent 3 

permission 9 

permit 7 

persimmon 2 

personal 3 

personality 3 

personally 4 

persuade 6 

pet 2 

petition 2 

philosophy 2 

phone 20 

photo 3 

photographer . 2 

physic 3 

physical 6 

physically 2 

physiology 3 

pickle 8 

picnic 11 

picturesque 2 

Pig 2 

pile 11 

pink 27 

pint 4 

pipe 6 

pitch 2 

pitcher 2 

pity 6 

plaid 3 

plain 14 

plainly 5 

plait 7 



[II 


IV 


V 


VI 


3 


III 




c 


2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 






3 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 






2 


III 


III 




3 


IV 


IV 




3 


II 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


II 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 




III 


A 


1 




II 
III 




3 


III 


III 




2 




III 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 








II 


IV 






IV 


IV 




1 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 






IV 


IV 




2 




III 




3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


III 




1 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 






2 


III 




c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




3 


III 






3 


III 


III 


AC 


1 


III 


III 




1 


III 







WORD LISTS 203 

I II III IV V VI 

plant 13 3 III III C 

plaster 6 2 III III C 

plate 10 2 II IV 

platform 2 2 IV IV 

player 4 1 III IV 

pleasantly 3 1 IV III 

pleasure 29 3 III II AC 

pledge 2 3 III 

plum 11 3 III 

plush 3 1 III 

pocket 10 3 III IV C 

pocketbook 4 IV IV 

poem 2 3 IV IV 

poetry 11 3 IV IV 

poison 6 3 III IV 

policy 8 2 IV IV 

polish 3 3 IV IV 

political 4 2 IV III 

pond 3 2 III 

poorly 7 III III 

popular 8 3 III IV 

population 2 2 IV IV 

pork 7 1 III C 

porter 6 1 III IV 

portiere 2 1 III 

portion 3 2 III 

pose 2 1 IV IV 

position 8 3 III II A 

positively 4 III IV 

possibility 4 1 III IV 

possibly 17 III III C 

postage 6 3 III 

postal 22 1 III III 

poster 2 1 IV IV 

postman 3 IV IV 

postpone 4 2 IV III 

pound 27 3 II C 

pour 3 3 III 

practically 8 III III 

practise 27 3 IV I 

prairie 2 3 IV IV 

pray 3 3 IV IV 

prayer 16 3 III IV 

preach 14 3 III IV C 

preacher 9 III IV 

precinct 2 2 IV IV 

precious 3 3 III 

prefer 9 3 IV II A 



204 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

prejudice 2 

preliminary 6 

preparation 6 

preparatory 3 

prescription 3 

presence 3 

preserve 4 

preside 4 

president 11 

presidential 2 

press 15 

presumably 2 

presume 12 

pretend 4 

prevent 7 

previous 5 

previously 2 

pride 5 

primary 7 

principal 9 

print 4 

private 10 

privilege 6 

prize 14 

probable 5 

problem 8 

proceed 3 

prod 2 

produce 3 

professional 2 

profit 2 

program 18 

progressive 3 

promenade 5 

promptly 2 

pronounce 3 

proper 9 

properly . 5 

property 4 

propitious 2 

proportion 2 

propose 2 

proposition 8 

prospect 4 

protect 2 

proud 14 

prove 13 

provide 6 



[II 


IV 


V VI 


3 


IV 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 




IV 


III 


2 


III 




1 


III 


IV 


3 


IV 


III 


1 




III 


3 


III 


II A 

III 


2 


III 
III 


III c 


1 


III 




2 


IV 


III 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 

III 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


II 


3 


III 


II 


2 


IV 


IV AC 


3 


III 


II AC 


3 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


III 


1 




III 


2 


III 


II 


3 




III 




IV 


IV 


2 




III 


1 




III 


3 


III 




2 


III 


II 


2 


III 




1 


III 


IV 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 




3 


III 


IV 


1 


IV 


III 


2 


III 


IV c 


2 




III 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 




III 


2 


IV 


III 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


III 


2 


III 


IV 



WORD LISTS 205 



I 11 

provoke 2 

public 11 

publish 2 

pudding 14 

puff 4 

pug 2 

pullman 10 

pulse 6 

pump 9 

pumpkin 2 

punish 2 

pupil 18 

purchase 6 

pure 4 

purpose v . . . 4 

push 2 

puzzle 4 

quarrel 9 

quart 19 

quartet 4 

queen 6 

queer 7 

quest 2 

quickly 3 

quietly 5 

quilt 5 

quinine 3 

race 5 

rack 7 

radiator 2 

rag 13 

rail 4 

railroad 7 

railway 2 

rainy 16 

raisin 3 

rake 5 

rally 3 

ranch 7 

range 11 

rapid 4 

rapidly 8 

rate 17 

ravine 2 

raw 2 

razor 5 

readiness 3 

rear 2 



QI 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


II 


A 


2 




III 


A 


2 


III 






2 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 






IV 


III 




2 


III 






2 


III 


II 




3 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




2 


III 


II 




2 


IV 


IV 


c 


3 


IV 


III 




2 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 




c 


3 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


III 




3 


IV 


III 


c 


1 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 






2 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






1 


III 


III 




1 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


II 


c 




IV 


IV 




2 


II 


IV 




3 


IV 


III 




1 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




2 


III 


II 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 

III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 





206 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

reasonable 8 

receipt 8 

recent 2 

recently 8 

reception 8 

recess 7 

recital 2 

recognize 3 

recollect 2 

recommend 3 

recommendation 4 

record 7 

recover 6 

reduce 4 

refer 6 

reference 5 

refit 2 

refreshment 5 

refund 2 

refuse 8 

regain 2 

register 10 

regret 4 

regular 26 

regularly 7 

rejoice 2 

relate 4 

relation 6 

relative 6 

release 2 

relief 5 

relieve 19 

religious 4 

relish 2 

remainder 2 

remark 7 

remedy 5 

remembrance 3 

remind 9 

remodel 3 

remove 5 

renew 2 

renter 2 

repair 6 

repay 3 

repeat 4 

repetition 2 

reply 14 



III 



IV 



VI 



3 


III 


III 


3 


III 


IV AC 


2 


IV 


IV A 




III 


III 


2 


III 


III 


3 




III 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV A 


1 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


II 


1 


III 


III 


1 


III 


IV 


2 


IV 


II A 


2 


III 


III 


1 


III 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


1 




III 


2 


III 


III 


2 


III 


IV 


1 


III 


III 




III 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


1 


III 


III 


1 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


IV A 


3 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 




3 


III 


III 


3 




III 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


IV 


IV 


1 


III 


III 


3 


III 


IV 




III 


IV 


1 


III 
III 


II 


2 


III 


III 


2 


IV 

III 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


2 


IV 


III 


2 


III 


IV c 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


IV 


II AC 



WORD LISTS 207 



I II 

represent 6 

representative 3 

republican 3 

require 5 

reset 4 

residence 6 

resident 2 

resign 11 

resort 2 

respect 12 

respectable 4 

Responsibility 7 

"testaurant 17 

restful 2 

restless 7 

result 12 

retire 5 

reunion 9 

reverend 5 

reverse 4 

review 6 

rheumatic 5 

rheumatism 19 

ribbon 9 

rice 5 

rid 4 

rig 3 

rip 6 

rise 11 

river 12 

roar 5 

roast 6 

rob 3 

rocky 2 

roller 2 

roomer 3 

root 3 

rope 4 

rose 6 

rosy 2 

rough 12 

round 20 

route 8 

row 12 

royal 7 

rub 13 

rubber 5 

ruffle 7 



[II 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


III 


IV 




1 




III 


A 


1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


II 






IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


III 




2 


III 






2 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




2 


III 






1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 
III 


III 






III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




1 


III 


III 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




1 




III 




3 


IV 


III 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


III 




1 


III 






1 


III 






3 


III 


II 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 

III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 


II 


c 


2 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


II 




3 


IV 


III 




2 


II 


IV 




2 


III 




c 


2 


III 







2o8 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

rug 21 

ruin 2 

rule 9 

runner 6 

rush 13 

sack 2 

sacred 2 

sacrifice ....". 2 

sad 7 

sadly 2 

safely 8 

sail 17 

sailor 4 

saint 2 

sake 11 

salad 9 

salary 14 

sale 9 

salesman 3 

salt 17 

sample 4 

sand 3 

sandwich 4 

sanitary 4 

sarcastic 2 

sash 3 

satin 7 

satisfaction 5 

satisfactory 11 

sauce 12 

saucer 4 

scale 3 

scalp 3 

scant 2 

scar 3 

scarce 3 

scarcely 14 

scarlet 3 

scatter 3 

scenery 9 

schedule 4 

scholar 9 

scholarship 2 

science 7 

scissors 3 

scold 9 

scorch 2 

scorcher 2 



III 


IV 


V 


1 


III 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


II 




IV 


IV 


2 


III 


III 


2 


III 




3 


IV 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


III 
III 


1 


III 


IV 


3 


III 




2 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


II 


3 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


III 


1 


III 


IV 


1 




III 


2 


III 




2 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 




3 


III 




3 


III 




3 


IV 


III 


2 


IV 

III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


1 


III 


II 


3 


III 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


IV 


III 


3 


IV 


IV 




IV 


IV 


2 


IV 


III 


3 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 




IV 


IV 



VI 



WORD LISTS 209 



1 11 

score 12 

scout 4 

scramble 3 

scrap 6 

scrape 2 

scraper 2 

scratch 2 

scream 4 

screen ,. . 4 

scribble 3 

scrub 10 

sea 15 

seal 6 

search 2 

season 23 

secret 6 

secretary 4 

section 11 

secure 12 

seed 2 

seek 3 

seldom 7 

self 6 

senior 9 

sense 9 

sentence 3 

separate 8 

separately 5 

serious 13 

sermon 1? 

session 4 

seventeen 6 

seventh 2 

severe 6 

shade 21 

shadow 6 

shake 14 

shamefully 2 

shape 23 

share 7 

sharp 8 

shave 4 

shed 2 

sheet . . . , 19 

shelf. 3 

shell 2 

shine 13 

ship 12 



[II 


IV 


V 


VI 


2 


III 


II 




1 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 






IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 




c 


3 


III 


II 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


II 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 


A 


1 


III 


III 




2 


III 


III 


AC 


3 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




3 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 






3 


III 


IV 


A 




III 


IV 




3 


III 


II 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




1 




III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


III 




3 




II 


c 


2 


III 


IV 


c 




IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 


III 


c 



2io THE CHILD AND "HIS SPELLING 



I II 

shirt 34 

shock 8 

shoe 32 

shoot 5 

shore 7 

shortly 10 

shoulder 12 

shout 2 

shove 3 

shower 12 

shrink 2 

shudder 2 

shut 4 

sickness 10 

sideboard 2 

sidewalk 3 

sightseeing 10 

signature 2 

silent 2 

silly 17 

silver 12 

silverware 2 

similar 5 

simple 5 

simply 11 

sin 2 

sing 31 

single 10 

sink 6 

sir 10 

sirup 7 

situate 5 

sixteen 13 

sixth 2 

skate 4 

skim 3 

skimp 2 

skin 11 

skip 2 

sky 3 

slap 3 

slave 2 

sleeper 5 

sleepy 16 

sleet 2 

sleeve 24 

sleigh 7 

slice 6 



[II 


IV 


V 


VI 


1 


II 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


III 




3 


II 


IV 


c 


2 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


II 




3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




2 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 






III 


IV 


c 


1 


III 
III 








IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 


A 


2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 
III 


IV 


AC 


3 


III 


III 




2 


III 


III 




1 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 


A 


3 


III 








IV 


IV 




1 


III 


II 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 
III 






1 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 






III 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




1 


III 






2 


II 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 







WORD LISTS 211 

I II III IV V VI 

slick,. 3 

slide 7 

slight 7 

slightly 2 

sling 2 

slip 15 

slipper 12 

slow 8 

slowly 3 

slumber 2 

smart 16 

smell. 6 

smile 5 

smooth 4 

snake 2 

snap 3 

sneeze 9 

soak 5 

soap 7 

sober 2 

sociable 2 

social 26 

socialist 3 

society 14 

sock 7 

soda 2 

sofa ' 7 

soft 17 

soil 5 

soldier 6 

sole 8 

solid 2 

solo 2 

solution 2 

solve 4 

somebody 8 

somehow 3 

somewhat 18 

somewhere 11 

song 25 

soreness 5 

sorrow 4 

soul 17 

soup 11 

sour 2 

source 2 

southern 13 

space 4 



1 


III 






2 


III 


IV 


A 


2 


III 


II 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




2 


III 


III 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 




III 




1 


III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 




c 


2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 


AC 


2 


IV 


IV 




1 




III 




3 


III 


II 




1 


III 






3 


III 


III 




1 


III 


IV 




1 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




2 


II 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


IV 


III 




3 


IV 


IV 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 


c 


1 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 




III 




2 


IV 


IV 






IV 


IV 






III 


III 






III 






2 


III 


III 


AC 




III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 


c 


3 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 




c 


3 


III 






3 




III 




2 


III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 



212 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

span 2 

spare 14 

speaker 6 

specialist 2 

speech 6 

spick 2 

spirit 8 

spit 4 

spite 5 

splendid 6 

spoon 5 

sport 7 

spout 2 

spread 15 

sprinkle 12 

squabble 2 

square 33 

squarely 2 

squeeze , 11 

stable 4 

stack 3 

stag 4 

stage 3 

stain * 2 

stalk 2 

stamp 9 

standard 7 

star 7 

starve 4 

statement 5 

station 24 

stationery 2 

statistics 2 

steadily 4 

steady 2 

steak 13 

steal 4 

steam 6 

steamer 15 

steel 2 

steep 3 

stenographer 3 

stew 5 

stiff 4 

sting 3 

stingy 4 

stir 5 

stitch 6 



HI 


IV 


V 


VI 


1 


III 






1 


III 


III 




2 


IV 
III 


III 




3 


III 
III 


III 




2 


IV 


III 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


III 




1 


III 


III 


A 


3 


III 




c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 




III 




3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 
III 


c 


3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




3 


III 






3 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 




A 


2 


IV 


II 




2 


IV 


III 


G 


3 


III 






2 


IV 


III 


A 


2 


III 


IV 




3 




III 




2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 


C 


3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 


C 


2 


III 


IV 


C 


1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 




C 


3 


IV 


IV 

III 




2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 







WORD LISTS 213 

I II III IV v VI 

stomach 23 

stone 9 

stool 3 

stoop 3 

storage 5 

storm 15 

stormy 3 

straight 15 

straighten 9 

strain 8 

strange 25 

strap 3 

straw > . . . 9 

streak 2 

strength 6 

strenuous 6 

stretch 3 

string 9 

strip 3 

stroll 6 

strongly 4 

struggle 4 

stubborn 2 

stump 3 

stunt 7 

stupid 3 

stylish 6 

subject 16 2 III AC 

submit 3 

substantial 2 

substitute 3 

suburb 3 

succeed 15 

successful 11 

succession 2 

sudden 6 

suddenly 3 

suffer 20 

sufficient 3 

sufficiently 4 

sugar 8 

suggestion 3 

suite 2 

sum 4 

sunny 5 

sunshine 8 

superintendent 9 

superior 6 



III 


IV 


V 


3 


II 


IV 


2 


III 


III 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


III 




1 


III 




2 


III 


III 




IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IL 




III 


IV 


3 


III 


II 


3 


III 


II 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


3 


IV 


IV 


2 


II 


IV 


2 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


1 


III 


IV 


2 




III 


3 


IV 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


1 


IV 


III 


3 


III 
III 




2 


III 


III 


2 




III 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


IV 


III 


2 


III 


III 




IV 


II 


1 


III 




1 


III 


IV 


1 


III 




3 


III 


III 


2 




II 




III 


III 


3 


III 


IV 


2 


IV 


III 


2 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 


1 


III 




1 


III 


II 


2 


IV 


III 


2 


IV 


IV 



214 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

supplement 2 

supply 4 

support 2 

surely 38 

surround 4 

suspect 4 

swallow 3 

sweat 14 

sweater 7 

sweep 24 

sweeper 2 

sweetness 3 

swell 16 

swim 6 

swing 10 

swipe 2 

switch. 4 

sympathize 2 

sympathy 7 

system 9 

tabernacle 3 

tablet 4 

tack 3 

tackle 3 

tact 3 

tag 2 

tail 7 

tailor 3 

talker 2 

tall 5 

tan 16 

tank 3 

tape 4 

tart 2 

task 2 

tax 3 

taxicab 3 

tea 29 

teakettle 2 

team 27 

teapot 5 

tear 17 

tease 3 

teaspoon 2 

telegram 14 

telegraph 3 

telephone 15 

temperance 2 



[II 


IV 


V 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


3 




III 


1 


II 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


2 


IV 


II 


3 


IV 


III 


2 


III 


III 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


II 
III 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


3 


II 


IV 


2 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


III 




IV 


IV 


3 


III 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 


3 


III 


III 


3 


III 


III 


1 


IV 


IV 


2 


III 


' IV 


1 


III 


IV 


1 


IV 


III 


% 


IV . 


III 


1 


IV 


IV 


3 


II 


IV 


3 


III 
III 


IV 


2 


III 


IV 


2 


III 




1 


III 




2 


III 




2 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 


1 


IV 


IV 




III 


IV 


3 


III 
III 


IV 


3 


III 
III 


III 


3 


III 


III 


3 


III 

III 




2 


III 


IV 


3 


III 




2 


III 


III 


3 


IV 


IV 



VI 



WORD LISTS 215 

I II III IV v VI 

temperature 5 

temple 8 

tempt 7 

temptation 5 

tend 3 

tendency 4 

tender 5 

tenement 3 

tennis 2 

tenor 2 

tent 16 

tenth 3 

term 7 

terribly 8 

test 13 

text 7 

thankful . 10 

thanksgiving 5 

theater 10 

themselves 12 

thereabouts 3 

therefore t 10 

thermometer 3 

thirteen 8 

thorough 4 

thousand 6 

thread 2 

thresh 2 

throat 14 

throughout 2 

thumb 4 

thunder 6 

thus 7 

tickle 6 

tidy 2 

tie 12 

tile 10 

timid 2 

tinker 3 

tiny 3 

tip 5 

tiresome 3 

toast 6 

toilet 2 

tomato 9 

tombstone 2 

ton 4 

tone 6 



2 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




1 




III 




2 


III 






1 


III 


IV 




3 




II 




2 


III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




2 


II 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 
III 


II 




1 


III 


II 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 




2 


III 




c 


2 


III 


III 


c 


3 


III 




c 


2 


III 






3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


II 




2 


IV 


III 




2 


III 






3 


II 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






1 


III 






3 


III 






2 


III 
III 


IV 




3 


III 






3 


III 






3 


II 
III 






2 


III 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 





216 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

tongue 7 

tool 2 

toot 14 

tooth 21 

torture 2 

total 4 

touch 12 

tour . 3 

toward 18 

towel 14 

tower 3 

toy 3 

trace 2 

track. 11 

trade 7 

traffic. 2 

tramp 2 

transfer 8 

travel 24 

traveler 4 

treatment 11 

trial 11 

tribe 2 

trick 4 

trifle 6 

trim 9 

triumph 3 

trolley 5 

trot 2 

true 31 

truly 8 

trust 10 

truth 13 

tub 5 

tuck 4 

tune 3 

tunic 2 

turkey 10 

twelfth 2 

twin 4 

twist 2 

type 3 

typewriter 5 

typhoid 4 

ugly 3 

umbrella 5 

unable 4 

unanimous 2 



[II 


IV 


V 


VI 


3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


II 


c 


3 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




3 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 






3 


III 


II 


AC 


3 


III 




c 


3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 


c 


2 


III 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 






2 


III 


III 




3 


III 


II 


c 


3 


IV 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 




3 


III 






2 


III 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 


III 


c 


2 


IV 


III 


AC 


2 




II 


A 


2 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 






2 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


IV 




1 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 






2 


III 






2 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 


e 


3 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 


AC 


2 




III 





WORD LISTS 217 

VI 



I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


unbearable 


... 2 




III 




uncomfortable .... 


... 8 




III 


III 


undershirt 


... 3 




III 




undertake 


... 4 


1 


IV 


III 


underwear 


... 16 




III 


IV 


undo 


... 4 




III 


IV 


undress 


... 7 




III 


IV 


uneasy 


... 2 


1 


IV 


IV 


unfinished 


... 2 


2 


IV 


IV 


union 


... 17 


3 


III 


IV 


unlikely 


... 2 






III 


unload . 


... 3 




III 


IV 


unlock , 


... .2 




B 




unnecessary 


... [ 2 




IV 


unpack 


... 4 


1 


III 




unpleasant 


... 6 




III 


IV 


unreasonable 


... 2 




IV 


IV 


unusual 


... 5 


1 


III 




unusually 


... 2 




III 




unwise 


... 2 




IV 


IV 


upset 


... 3 


1 


III 


IV 


urge 


... 4 


3 


III 


IV 


urine 


... 2 




III 




useful 


... 10 


2 


III 


IV 


useless 


... 4 




III 


IV 


usually , 


... 17 


1 


III 


III 


utter 


... 2 


3 


III 




vacant 


... 4 


2 


IV 


IV 


vague 


... 2 


2 


IV 


IV 


valley 


... 16 


3 
3 
3 

2 
3 
2 


III 
III 

IV 

III 
III 

IV 


IV 


valuable 


... 4 


TV 


value 


... 7 


TT 


variety 


... 4 


TV 


various 


... 8 


III 


varnish 


... 2 


IV 


varv 


... 4 


3 

2 


III 

IV 

III 


TV 


vaudeville 


... 2 


TV 


veal 


... 3 


IV 


vegetable 


... 9 


3 


III 




vegetation 


... 2 


2 


IV 


IV 


velvet , 


... 6 


3 
2 
1 
2 
3 


III 

IV 
IV 

III 
III 


III 


ventilate 


... 2 


TV 


ventilation 


2 


TV 


verse 


... 4 


IV 


vessel 


... 3 




vest 


... 4 


2 
1 


IV 

III 

IV 


TV 


via 


... 3 


IV 


vice 


... 2 


IV 



218 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I II 

victrola 2 

vigor 3 

vinegar 4 

violin 7 

visitor 8 

voice 11 

volume 9 

vomit 7 

vote 25 

wage 5 

wagon 4 

wake 15 

waken 7 

wander 5 

war 7 

warmly 3 

warn 5 

wave 4 

weak 17 

weakness 2 

wealth 4 

wealthy 3 

weave 2 

wed 16 

weed 2 

weekly 9 

weigh 31 

weight 5 

welcome 16 

western 7 

wet 16 

wheel 11 

whenever 8 

whereby 3 

wherever 8 

whimper 2 

whip 5 

whiskers 3 

whisper 4 

whistle 3 

whoever 3 

wholly 4 

wide 7 

widow 4 

width 4 

wiggle 2 

wild 9 

windmill 2 



[II 


IV 


V 


VI 




IV 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


IV 




2 




III 




2 


III 


III 




2 


III 


III 


c 


3 


IV 

III 


III 


A 


2 


III 


II 


c 


3 




III 


c 


3 


III 




c 


1 


III 


III 


c 




III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




1 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 






1 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 


c 






III 


c 


1 


IV 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


IV 


IV 




1 


III 


III 




3 


III 






1 


III 






3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 




c 


3 


III 


II 




2 


III 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


3 


III 


III 


c 


1 


III 


IV 






IV 


III 




1 


III 


IV 




1 


IV 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 






IV 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 




3 


III 






1 


IV 


IV 




2 


IV 


III 




2 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


III 




c 


3 


III 


IV 






IV 


IV 




2 


III 


III 




1 


III 







2 


III 






2 


III 
III 


III 




2 


IV 


IV 


c 


2 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


IV 


c 


1 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


III 


c 




IV 


IV 




3 


III 








IV 


IV 




2 


III 






3 


III 


III 




3 


III 


IV 




3 


III 


IV 

III 




3 


III 




c 


1 


III 


IV 




2 


III 


IV 






III 


III 




1 


III 







WORD LISTS 219 

I II III IV v VI 

windy 7 III IV 

wipe 5 

wire 8 

wireless 4 

wisdom 3 

wise 9 

within 6 

wonderfully 5 

wood 17 

woodwork 2 

wool 4 

worthless 2 

worthy 6 

wrap 6 

wreck 3 

wring 3 

writer 2 

yeast 3 

yell 8 

yoke . . ! 9 

youngster 6 

zero 3 

Lack of space forbids the presentation of List 
IV, but its general character is revealed by the 
statement that eighteen hundred four of its two 
thousand two hundred thirty words occur only once. 
This is thirty-four and sixty-nine hundredths per 
cent, of five thousand two hundred words, the total 
of the four lists. Ayres found the closely similar 
figure of thirty-seven and fifty-three hundredths 
per cent, for the proportion of vocabulary occurring 
but once. 

In the two hundred thousand running words thus 

tallied, a total of twelve hundred nine different 

_ proper names occurred, with a 

Proper names l r 

in the corre- combined frequency of about nine 

spondence thousand seven hundred forty. 



22d THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

In tallying proper names, terms which were 
identical in spelling except for a final s, such as 
Steven and Stevens^ William and Williams, etc., 
were accounted a single word instead of two. All 
nicknames, pet diminutives, and spellings based on 
personal predilection were reduced to the standard 
orthography. The envelope addresses were consid- 
ered as far as they came into the writers' hands, 
since nothing in the matter of correct spelling is 
more germane to efficiency than the address, as our 
Dead Letter Office shows. The inclusion of ad- 
dresses, the relationship of certain correspondents 
to one another, and the much greater volume of 
correspondence from certain persons than from 
others, accounts for the unusual frequency of some 
names. The same plan of division into four lists, as 
outlined above, has been followed with the proper 
names, but the columns showing sex differences 
(IV and V) have been eliminated because they 
yield data so meager as to be non-significant. As 
presented below, Lists II and III have been purged 
of the following classes of names for an obvious rea- 
son: All towns of less than 10,000 inhabitants, 
all strictly local publications, organizations and 
streets; and all family names, except those of his- 
toric characters, or of men in the public eye. This 
elimination decreased List II only slightly, but re- 
duced List III over a third. 



WORD LISTS 



221 



LIST I 

I WORD 
Saturday 199 



LIST II 

30 WORDS (33 WORDS BEFORE ELIMINATION) 



August 49 3 A 

Charles 184 1 

Chicago 85 2 

Christmas 133 3 A 

December 34 3 A 

Ella _ 112 

Fannie 15 

Friday 188 1 A 

Hamilton 91 

Harry 28 1 

Hepsy ....230 

Illinois ....137 3 

January 36 2 A 

July 20 2 A 

June ,.27 2 A 



Madison 169 

May 42 1 

Miss 113 

Monday 150 1 

November 37 2 

October 44 3 

Ralph 124 1 

St. Paul 22 

September ..», 60 2 

Sunday 311 2 

Thursday 98 3 

Tuesday 135 2 

Wednesday 101 3 

William(s) 433 1 

Wisconsin 128 2 



LIST III 

197 WORDS (3.I2 WORDS BEFORE ELIMINATION) 



Adam 4 

Albert 3 1 

Albuquerque 5 

Alfred .20 1 

Alice 100 1 

Allen 2 

Allie 4 

American ..28 1 

April 15 2 

Arthur 4 1 

Avis 21 

Baptist 6 2 

Belleville 2 

Bible 4 1 

Blanche 2 

Boston 2 1 



Bryan 6 

Burlington 2 

Byron 2 

California 42 2 

Canada 2 1 

Canterbury 2 1 

Carl 7 

Catholic 12 2 

Champaign 48 

Chesapeake 2 1 

Chinatown 2 

Christian 16 2 

Claude 8 

Colorado 17 1 

Columbus 4 1 

Congregational ... 2 



222 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



Coronado 5 1 

Daisy 3 

Daniel 17 1 

Danville 54 

Davis 4 

Delos 6 

Donald 8 1 

Dora 5 

Dorothy 41 

Drake 3 

Easter 9 

Edna 3 

Edward 25 1 

Eleanor 3 

Eliza 9 

Elizabeth 19 1 

Ellen 13 1 

Elmer 2 

Emma 7 1 

England 20 2 

English 16 2 

Episcopal 8 1 

Epworth 6 

Ethel 2 

Etta 27 

Europe 4 3 

Evan 2 

Everett 2 

February 14 3 A 

Florence 11 1 

Florida 14 1 

France 11 1 

Frances 5 1 

Francis 8 1 

Fred 4 1 

French 12 1 

Frenchman 2 

Gabriel 8 

Gene 4 

George 30 3 

Georgia 14 2 

German 18 1 

Glasgow 5 1 

God 45 1 

Grace 32 1 

Hallowe'en 3 1 

Harold 14 1 

Harvey 5 



Hattie 49 

Hazel 3 

Helen 199 1 

Herbert 9 

Howard 4 

Huldah 21 

Indiana 7 3 

Indianapolis 7 1 

Iowa 5 2 

Irishman 2 

Italian 6 2 

Italy 5 2 

Jack 5 1 

Jackson 15 

Jacob 2 1 

James 3 1 

Jessie 36 1 

Jewish 2 

John 15 1 

Johnson 4 

Joliet 4 1 

Joseph 76 1 

Julia 47 

Kansas 21 1 

Kate 54 1 

Katharine 8 1 

Kenneth 6 

Latin 8 

Lee 3 

Lincoln 4 2 

Lloyd 5 1 

Logan 4 

Lois 4 

Lola 3 

London 39 2 

Lord 3 

Loring 15 

Los Angeles 12 1 

Lottie 11 

Louis 169 

Lucy 32 1 

Lutheran 3 

March 20 2 A 

Margaret 12 

Marion 12 

Mary 9 2 

Mason 16 

Matthew 5 



WORD LISTS 



223 



Maud 6 

Methodist 9 1 

Mexican 2 

Michigan 2 1 

Milan 2 

Milwaukee 14 2 

Minneapolis 6 1 

Minnesota 28 1 

Minnie 6 1 

Mississippi 4 2 

Missouri 10 2 

Mitchell 12 

Mollie 12 

Mormon 3 

Morris 8 

Nancy 4 

Nebraska 3 1 

Ned 6 1 

Nellie 6 

Nevada 3 1 

New York 17 2 

Northwestern 5 

Oakland 5 

Ohio 4 

Oliver 2 

Omaha 6 

Oregon 4 

Ottawa 11 

Pacific 7 

Pansy 313 

Pasadena 3 

Paul 3 

Pennsylvania 2 

Perry 22 

Peter 7 

Presbyterian 3 



Prince 5 

Raymond 5 

Robert 3 

Rome 3 

Roosevelt 7 

Rose 10 

Rosecrans 2 

Roy 9 

Ruth 61 

Sacramento 11 

Samuel 4 

Sampson 4 

San Diego 43 

San Francisco 20 

Santa Claus 5 

Santa Fe 2 

Sheridan 3 

Spencer 3 

Springfield 7 

Stanley 20 

Stella 7 

Susan 41 

Swiss 2 

Taft 8 

Tennessee 2 

Terre Haute 6 

Texas 13 

Thanksgiving 27 

Theodore 15 

Thomas 4 

Titanic 3 

Walter 9 

Washington 23 

Wilson 17 

Yellowstone 2 



A presentation of List IV of the proper names 
will be unnecessary. Of eight hundred sixty-two 
names found in it, five hundred forty-four 
occur but once ; and the vast majority are mere local 
names of families, or given names more or less un- 
common. Only one hundred one of the five hun- 
dred forty-four are found in any of the spellers. 



224 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

Since each of the three spellers consulted con- 
tained one or more special lessons on foreign terms 

Separate tabula- n0t ^ et Ve ^ ful1 ^ naturalized ' m 
tion of foreign American speech, a special list of 

these terms was kept separate as 

they occurred in the correspondence. Thirteen such 

words occurred with a total frequency of fifteen. 

Elite alone occurred more than once. Only six of 

the thirteen were found in any of the spellers. 



CHAPTER XIII 

SPELLING TEXTS AND SPELLING NEEDS 

LET us first examine the word lists of the three 
4 spellers previously referred to, and see in how- 
far the ordinary text meets the requirements in re- 
Vocabularies of s P ect to a spelling vocabulary. 
spelling-books The relation of the vocabularies 

of the three texts, excluding proper names and for- 
eign terms, is as follows : 

Speller Speller Speller 
ABC 

Words found in one text only 143 5,785 1,082 

Words found in Spellers A and B . . . 633 633 .... 

Words found in Spellers A and C. . . 132 .... 132 

Words found in Spellers B and C 3,101 3,101 

Words found in all three texts 1,613 1,613 1,613 

Total for each text 2,521 11,132 5,928 

Total of different words for all texts, 12,489. 

The variation among these books with respect to 
extent of spelling vocabulary indicates that the mak- 
ers of spelling-books differ in their opinions as 
widely as have the educators whose estimates have 
already been cited in Chapter IX. Not only in re- 
gard to total number of words are there striking 
differences, but also in regard to community of 

225 



226 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

vocabulary. Though Speller A has less than forty- 
three per cent, of the vocabulary of C, hardly sev- 
enty per cent, of the list is the same as C's. That 
is, the chances of finding any given word of A's vo- 
cabulary in C are less than seven in ten. Conversely, 
the chance of finding any given word of C's vocab- 
ulary in A is less than three in ten. Of the total 
twelve thousand, four hundred eighty-nine different 
words, only sixteen hundred thirteen, or less 
than thirteen per cent., are common to all the 
spellers. 

If the lists of the spelling-books be tested by the 
lists secured from the correspondents, it develops 

that four thousand, three hun- 
cabularies°of " dred fifty-one different words, or 
spellers and on l y thirty-five pter cent, of the 

correspondents , , . , , 

total, ever appeared m the letters. 

To determine the extent to which the judgments of 
the three authors united was more reliable than the 
judgment of any one author, the one thousand, six 
hundred thirteen words common to the three texts 
were followed out in the correspondence. Seventy 
per cent, of these appeared in the correspondence — 
twice as large a proportion as for the total twelve 
thousand, four hundred eighty-nine words. How- 
ever, it would seem that so short a list as sixteen 
hundred thirteen, if at all well chosen, should 
be represented by much more than seventy per cent, 
of its strength among the five thousand, two hun- 
dred different words of the correspondence. Fur- 



TEXTS AND NEEDS 22*7 

thermore, one would normally expect that this 
seventy per cent, (eleven hundred thirty-six 
words) would fall most heavily in List I (see page 
157), less heavily in List II (see page 161), and 
not to any large extent in List IV. However, they 
were distributed as follows: 

51 fell in List I, constituting 27.4% of said list 
193 fell in List II, constituting 33.4% of said list 
620 fell in List III, constituting 28.1% of said list 
272 fell in List IV, constituting 12.2% of said list 

Clearly then, the spellers examined have not placed 
emphasis where it is most needed. 

Passing now to the proper names listed in the 
spellers, one finds a still greater lack of harmony. 

Speller Speller Speller 
ABC 

Words found in one text only. 167 53 177 

Words found in Spellers A and B 13 13 

Words found in Spellers A and C 41 ... 41 

Words found in Spellers B and C 24 24 

Words found in all three texts 25 25 25 

Total for each text 246 115 267 

Total different words for all texts, 500. 

Speller B, with a general vocabulary about twice as 
great as Cs, and four times as great as A's, has less 
than one-half as many proper names as either of 
the others. Only five per cent, of the total of five 
hundred proper names are common to all three 
spellers, and only twenty-one per cent, show any 
degree of community. As far as one may general- 
ize from these three spellers, the chances of finding 



228 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

the same proper name in two spellers picked up at 
random ranges from sixteen in one hundred to 
forty-two in one hundred. If it were desirable so 
to do, curious differences might be pointed out, 
showing a tendency of one book to "specialize" in 
American geography, and another in foreign geog- 
raphy and history, or perchance in Christian names. 
Two hundred sixty-nine of these five hundred 
proper names do not appear at all in the list of 
twelve hundred nine proper names found in the 
correspondence, and five of the twenty-five com- 
mon to all the spellers were among these two hun- 
dred sixty-nine. 

But the climax of disparities between the texts 
is seen in the lists of foreign terms found in the 
spelling-books. They tabulate as follows : 



Speller Speller Speller 
ABC 

Words found in one text only 12 62 24 

Words found in Spellers A and B 2 2 

Words found in Spellers A and C . 4 .. 4 

Words found in Spellers B and C 6 6 

Total for each text 18 70 34 

Total different words for all texts, 110. 



Not a single term was common to all the texts, and 
less than eleven per cent, of the total showed any 
degree of community. Only six of the whole one 
hundred ten appeared in the correspondence; 
nor were any of these six among the twelve found 
in more than one speller. Had the compilers of 



TEXTS AND NEEDS 229 

these books taken words at random from a French 
dictionary their offerings could hardly have been 
less related to the pupil's needs. 

But if a complete inventory be taken of the data 
of the last chapter, we must go further than to say 
Limitations of that the spellers contain a vast 

any speller amount of useless material. They 

have failed to some extent to include the necessary 
words, as the following table shows : 

WORDS FOUND IN NONE OF THE SPELLERS 

General. 

List I— 1 (in). 

List II— -11 (anyway, awfully, crazy, every- 
thing, job, lately, maybe, pa, per, sick, 
silk ) . 

List III— 202 (the type is shown by such as the 
following: adverbs, e. g\, absolutely; 
nouns on verb stems, e. g., alteration, 
announcement; unusual compounds, e. 
g., afire, apiece; verbs on adjective 
stems, e. g., straighten; compounds of 
simple words, e. g., anywhere, bed- 
time; prefixes in in- and un- y e. g., 
inland, unsatisfactory ) . 

List IV — 625 (many of the same type as for 
List III, though the number of new 
stems is larger). 
Proper. 

List II (after elimination) — 7 out of 30. 

List III (after elimination) — 99 out of 197. 

List IV— 761 out of 862. 

Foreign terms — 7 out of 13. 



2 3 o THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

From such an exhibit it might seem that our 
spellers should be larger rather than smaller. Every 
one of the thirteen correspondents referred to in 
Chapter X contributed in varying amounts to the 
two thousand, two hundred thirty words of List 
IV. There seemed to be on the part of every per- 
son a specific demand for words not used by any 
of the other twelve. This being true, it becomes 
evident that no speller can fill the need of individ- 
uals completely. In view of the plastic state of our 
language, with the constant accretion of words from 
various sources and the decadence of standard 
words so that they become obsolescent or obsolete, 
the unabridged dictionary itself can not meet all 
possible needs of every person. The individual ob- 
viously must make new linguistic as well as other 
new adjustments from time to time throughout his 
life. 

That the vocabularies of different persons vary 
widely is generally believed ; but their variation may 
Individual writing n ^t be in any sense due to the 
vocabularies number of words people know 

how to spell. If a connection of this sort did 
exist, one might be justified in putting such em- 
phasis upon spelling as was the practise a genera- 
tion ago. It has furthermore not been demon- 
strated that the vocabulary of a liberally educated 
person is wider in written expression than that of 
one not so highly trained. It was to shed some light 
upon this problem that the extent of each corre- 



TEXTS AND NEEDS 231 

spondent's vocabulary was carefully noted as far 
as could be done with the limited quantity of corre- 
spondence. The running words of each correspond- 
ent's letters were counted off a thousand at a time. 
A record was made of the number of different 
words employed on the first thousand; and the 
number of new words introduced in each succeed- 
ing thousand was also recorded. Not less than five 
thousand running words was accepted from any 
correspondent, since it was felt that this number 
was necessary in order to gain a fair idea of the 
extent of a person's vocabulary. It will be seen 
from the table exhibiting the data thus gained (see 
following page) that no person fully exhausted his 
vocabulary; nor, as already suggested, does it seem 
probable that any normal individual's vocabulary 
could be exactly ascertained if his correspondence 
were pursued indefinitely. 

Some interesting revelations are made by this 
table. N. exceeds in vocabulary her daughter E., 
who has had at least twice the schooling her mother 
enjoyed. However, N. notices everything of a per- 
sonal nature, and feels a keen interest in people. 
E. writes mostly about herself, and hence has a 
narrower range of experience to communicate. H., 
another daughter, only slightly exceeded N. in vo- 
cabulary used at the end of five thousand running 
words. At the end of twelve thousand running 
words S. exceeded both her adult college-educated 
children, P. and W. In neither spelling capacity 



232 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



m 

Q 

< 
m 

O 

K 
H 

W 
> 

w 

Qg 

wS 

< & 
>o 

*^ 

£Q 
g« 
Oo 

Si 

al 

^^ 



i**°x 



qios 



q*6I 



V8I 



WI 



^91 



I^OJ, 



VQI 



q*H 



qiSI 



TCI 



qui 



IBJO£ 



VOI 



q>6 



TC 



qu 



V9 



I^OJL 



ipg 



W 



P-*8 



P"5 



;s X 



o t- 

oo co 
r-i cm 



co-* oo 



8 



S 



__ rHiOCMiH 

f QOCOOOlO©t-OHOX 



©-*©^COC3©lOCOCOCO 
|>H(MQ0iOlOO^lMOIQD 



rHCOCOC-lOCMC-^CSCO 
OCOQOt-lOOOCOOSCDOS 



t-COC35Wt-MHO 
CO CM C5 C5 00 00 lO t> 
tHtH ri(MH 



t— It- IHHi- It- IHHWHHr- 1 



' CM t- O CO t- tH CO i 

— i co rH c- co io ao i 

CO CM (Ml CO CO CO i 



i CO I 



pi5S<cn60WS5&i4uJSffl 



I B ^JL 


£3 

(NH 




CM 


qW 


OSCM t- 
iHtH r-i 


q*6S 


ess a 


q*88 


CMIO r-l 

cocm cm 


VIS 


§co cm 


q*9S 


c^S iS 


nno£ 


COrH CM 

<N r-t CM 


qise 


©OS OS 
rHrH CO 


qi?e 


rH LO CO 
lOCM CM 


P-*S8 


tH Tt< 00 
COtH rH 


P U SS 


Hl> t- 

(Mn CO 


ISI8 


rH lO t- 
COrH <N 


I«K>A 


2159 
1359 

2078 


q*os 


CM 00 CM 
rH rH CM 


qi6s 


05 tH OS 
COCO «H 


q^8S 


CM IQ t- 

rH r-» rH 


qus 


CO C- 00 
COCM CO 


q^95 


r-i rH *H 
COrH rH 


|b;oj. 


1967 
1254 

1941 


qiss 


COCJi ■ rH 
COr-i rH 


qi?s 


CO CM ©rH 
CO CM t- CO 


PJS3 


OOrW C-© 
IOCM rHlO 


P U 3S 


CM 00 00 IO 
rH COrH CM 


5SIS 


Ir-CM rH US 

rH CM rH 00 


T3 
a 

CO 

O 

H 


rUX 


< 


Bs 



TEXTS AND NEEDS 233 

nor reading vocabulary is there any comparison to 
be made between her children and herself; but S. 
is a wide reader, and has acquired rather cosmo- 
politan interests. It could hardly need plainer dem- 
onstration than these two instances afford that writ- 
ing vocabulary is dependent, not on spelling ability 
or formal education, so much as on largeness of 
view and breadth of interest, which in many cases 
is favorably affected by education. Changing 
scenes and the character of one's correspondent 
also affect the size of one's vocabulary. C. made 
an unusual record on his first thousand words, 
because of a nervous habit of jumping quickly from 
theme to theme in his ordinary letters. In his diary 
of domestic and local happenings he falls to a very 
common record on his second thousand words; but 
thereafter he eclipses all others in recounting the 
sights and events of an extended trip through the 
West. P., after falling slightly behind W. 
at twenty thousand, overtakes and easily passes 
him in describing the experiences of travel 
and of changed surroundings. A. too has a very 
ordinary record until she begins to write of her 
European tour, when she quickly shoots ahead of 
all the others. G. falls sensibly behind O. at five 
thousand, because she, a graduate student, is under- 
going routine life as a teacher, while O., a high- 
school graduate, is visiting relatives and friends most 
of the time and experiencing frequent changes of 
scenes. Practically all interruptions in the descent 



234 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

of the number of vocabulary accessions from thou- 
sand to thousand for each correspondent can be 
explained on the bases already mentioned. 

In the list published by Ayres, a total frequency 
of seventeen hundred fifty-seven is assigned to 

„ , , . . proper names, Mr.. Mrs.. I and 
Vocabularies in r r ' \ ' . 

family and other a, words not considered in the 

correspondence present ^^ Since . fl Ayres , 

study the unpublished portion of his list comprised 
twelve per cent, of the total number of running 
words, it seems likely that some two thousand run- 
ning words of his study (seventeen hundred fifty- 
seven increased by twelve per cent.) would have 
been disregarded in making up our own general list. 
Put otherwise, he tabulated about twenty-one thou- 
sand five hundred running words according to our 
mode of reckoning (twenty-three thousand six hun- 
dred twenty-nine decreased by about two thou- 
sand). His published list of five hundred 
forty-two different words shrinks to four hundred 
sixty-seven by the elimination of proper names and 
reduction to a dictionary basis. If the same per- 
centage of shrinkage holds for the unpublished por- 
tion of his list, his total of two thousand one 
distinct words shrinks to about seventeen hundred 
twenty-five. 

We have, then, Ayres* composite vocabulary of 
seventeen hundred twenty-five in a total of twenty- 
one thousand, five hundred running words to com- 
pare with four individual vocabularies in the pres- 



TEXTS AND NEEDS 235 

ent study (see table on page 232). At twenty- 
one thousand five hundred A. and P. were each 
about a hundred words above Ayres' composite 
vocabulary, W. was seventy-five above it, but 
H. had fallen a long way behind. It is impossi- 
ble tO' believe, in view of the length of our general 
List IV, that any ordinary individual could show 
a vocabulary equal to that gleaned from hundreds 
of persons combined, except by being placed in a 
situation where he would have occasion to discuss 
a greater range of interests. The explanation in 
this case is that family correspondence and letters 
of a friendly nature call for more diversified ex- 
pression than stereotyped business communications, 
however miscellaneous in character. 

This individuality of spelling vocabulary, while 
naturally directed somewhat along technical lines 

of vocational importance to the 
Sex differences . 

in spelling several writers, is a more uncer- 

vocabulary ta j n quantity in many ways than 

sex differences in writing vocabulary. All words 
in general Lists I, II and III were inspected in or- 
der to furnish a list of words which show a wide 
variation in use as between the sexes. "Wide vari- 
ation" was construed as meaning a change from 
List I of one sex to List III of the other, from List 
II of one sex to List IV of the other, from List III 
of one sex to non-occurrence in the other, or any 
greater degree of change. Words with a frequency 
of only two, however, were not taken into account 



236 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

The two lists, one showing dominance with the 
women, the other with the men, were then subdi- 
vided according to a scheme set forth below. 

WORDS DOMINANT IN LETTERS OF WOMEN 

A. Articles of food, terms relating to consump- 
tion or preparation thereof : 



appetite 


candy 


goose 


plum 


apple 


casserole 


grape 


pork 


bacon 


cheese 


gravy 


pudding 


bake 


chicken 


griddle 


sauce 


banana 


chocolate 


grocery 


sirup 


beef 


cook 


jelly 


soup 


berry 


cooky 


juice 


starve 


biscuit 


cracker 


lard 


stew- 


boil 


cream 


milk 


stove 


bread 


custard 


orange 


toast 


breakfast 


dessert 


oven 


tomato 


burner 


fish 


oyster 


vegetable 


butter 


food 


pail 


yeast 


cabbage 


gas 


pan 




cake 


gasoline 


pear 





B. Articles of wearing apparel, textiles, terms 
closely related thereto : 



apron 


embroider 


pin 


shoe 


bead 


embroidery 


plaid 


silk 


belt 


flannel 


plait 


skirt 


braid 


fur 


plush 


sleeve 


button 


gem 


rip 


stitch 


cape 


glove 


rubber 


tape 


chain 


handkerchief 


ruffle 


tie 


cloth 


legging 


sample 


undershirt 


clothe 


mend 


sash 


velvet 


corset 


mitten 


satin 


waist 


cotton 


nightgown 


scissors 


wool 


cuff 


patch 


sew 




dressmaker 


pattern 


shirt 





TEXTS AND NEEDS 



237 



C. Parts of body, care of same, personal ap- 
pearance : 



arm hair 
bathe head 
bowel kidney 
fat 


limb 
neat 
nose 


stomach 

stylish 

swell 


D. Animals : 






animal fish 
chicken goose 


kitten 
moth 


mouse 


E. Esthetics, color: 






admire bloom 
art blossom 
beautifully disgust 
black gallery 


glorious 
lovely 
museum 
muss 


orange 
perfect 
tan 



F. Diseases, their treatment, concrete sensitivity 
for good or ill, terms closely related thereto : 



ache 

afraid 

aggravate 

ail 

alarm 

bronchitis 

burial 

bury 

camphor 

chill 



cough 

crazy 

cure 

dentist 

die 

dizzy 

dread 

envy 

fond 



headache 


prescription 


heal 


pulse 


horrid 


relief 


hospital 


sick 


hysterics 


swell 


lame 


tease 


medicine 


tiresome 


nervous 


vomit 


nurse 


zero 



G. Parts of house, furniture and furnishings 



basement 

bathroom 

bedroom 

bowl 

closet 



cottage 

furniture 

grate 

mat 

mattress 



napkin 

pillow 

plate 

portiere 

quilt 



saucer 

spoon 

teapot 

towel 

tub 



H. Measures : 



barrel 

bushel 



peck 
pint 



pound 
quart 



tape 
weight 



238 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



I. Correspondence: 
pencil 



envelope 
ink 



postage 



stamp 



J. Other domestic activities and relationships: 
homelike launder mop scrub 



housekeeper 
housework 



maid 



mop 
roomer 



sweep 



Unclassified (possible membership in List K or 
L indicated in parentheses) : 



accommodation contribution 


hearty 


notwithstand- 


acid 


crack 


helper 


ing 


acute 


cultivate 


hilly 


oblige 


affectionately 


daddy 


hunt 


occupant 


alcohol 


dean 


improvement 


onto 


alike 


description 


interrupt 


overdo 


altitude 


detain 


jump 


package 


anniversary- 


dispose 


kill (K) 


pad 


asleep 


draft 


knife 


parcel 


assembly (L) 


driver 


launch 


phone 


bag 


east 


law (L) 


pipe 


baggage 


economize 


lively 


pond 


balance 


elaborate 


load 


pour 


behave 


elsewhere 


logic 


precious 


bet 


empty 


lonely 


presume 


beyond 


entirely 


loop 


progressive 


bid 


errand 


loose 


pronounce 


birthday 


eve 


luck 


puff 


blind 


exhaust 


mass 


quietly 


bottle 


farm 


matron 


rainy 


bush 


fill 


maybe 


rake 


caller 


firecracker 


memorial 


ranch 


carelessness 


fold 


merry 


readiness 


carpenter 


fuss (K) 


message 


remodel 


carriage 


game 


missionary 


respectable 


channel 


goodby 


muscular 


rig 


chautauqua 


goodness 


mutilate 


rope 


check 


greet 


nap 


rub 


chore 


grip 


naughty 


sail 


circular 


ha 


nearby 


sailor 


companion 


handy 


neighbor 


sale 


connect 


harvest 


noisy 


satisfactory 


consequently 


heap 




scramble 



TEXTS AND NEEDS 



239 



scream 
sentence 
shoot 
sidewalk 
sink 
sixty- 
skim 
slice 
slick 
smooth 
socialist (L) 
soft 

somewhere 
spell 



sprinkle 


temperature 


unpack 


stir 


tent 


unusual 


stoop 


thankful 


vessel 


storage 


thereabouts 


wagon 


strength 


thin 


warmly 


strenuous 


thorough 


weekly 


strip 


tinker 


whistle 


stupid 


tiny 


widow 


sunny 


tour 


wind 


surely 


toy 


wipe 


tail 


trifle 


wireless 


tank 


trolley 


woman 


telegraph 


twin 


worthy 



WORDS DOMINANT IN LETTERS OF MEN 



K. Terms of aggression, contest and domina- 
tion, physical and mental: 

argument defeat loss 

oppose 
permit 
solve 



attack 

control 

convince 



effort 

fight 

force 



struggle 
submit 
successful 
suspect 



L. Institutional life and social organization: 

administration convention enroll preside 

agency county inaugurate public 

associate customary majority representative 

college discuss member term 



Unclassified (possible membership in Lists A- J 
indicated in parentheses) : 



above 


altogether 


descend error 


absent 


amuse 


directly especially 


absolutely 


assure 


dismiss fact 


accept 


attend 


dismissal favor 


add_ 


await 


dividend feature 


admit 


civil 


drift final 


advantage 


danger 


earn follow 


agreeable (F) 


definitely 


education fourth 


aid 


deny 


encouragement geography 



240 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



guilty 


literature 


physiology 


service 


guy 


mention 


portion 


shadow (E) 


harmony 


method 


practise 


standard 


honor 


naturally 


prefer 


stenographer 


hopeful 


nature 


probable 


suddenly 


human 


necessary 


proceed 


sufficient 


impress 


occur 


prod 


term 


inconven- 


offend (F) 


produce 


thus 


ience (F) 


opera 


recess 


trust 


increase 


outrage (F) 


refer 


upon 


injury (F) 


personal 


reference 


value 


instance 


personality 


religious 


violin 


intrude 


personally 


reply 


wage (s) 


kindly 


pet 


reverse 





SUMMARY OF SEX DOMINANCE 

List Women Men 

A 58 

B 50 

C ..-..; 13 

D 7 

E 15 1 

F 37 5 

G 20 

H 8 

I 5 

J 9 

K 2 16 

L 3 16 

Unclassified 183 90 

Total 410 128 

Deduct counted twice 6 

True total 404 128 



Probably no two persons could agree that all words 
have been properly assigned in these lists on sex 



TEXTS AND NEEDS 241 

difference, inasmuch as a certain term may be used 
in a variety of situations. Thus it happens that 
some words occur in two lists. Only three or 
four of the eight women correspondents were at 
the time of their writing carrying heavy domestic 
responsibilities, so it may be inferred that general 
social conditions, if not heredity, have impressed 
certain traits upon femininity, and thus established 
a sort of feminine type of spelling vocabulary. Lists 
K and L are likewise in harmony with contempo- 
rary sociological, psychological and biological re- 
search and theory, in pointing out a masculine type, 
though the totals for sex dominance show that the 
feminine type is much more homogeneous than the 
masculine, another fact which is in harmony with 
contemporary thought. It is predicted that adjust- 
ment of elementary-school courses to sex needs will 
sooner or later cause some differentiation in spelling 
work required of boys and girls. At present a 
certain amount of incidental spelling in connection 
with the special subjects, such as domestic science, 
manual training and civics, offers most hope of a 
satisfactory solution. 

In the course of a discussion which one of the 
writers held recently with two grammar-school boys 

_ . - on the applicability of their spell- 
Relation of time . . . , 
economy to spell- mg lessons to their composition, 
ing needs Qne of them declared that he had 

no idea of ever using many of the words of the 
speller, since he was familiar with plenty of short 



242 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

common ones that did just as well. How far an 
adult's narrow writing vocabulary is a matter of 
choice for the sake of economy, rather than a result 
of lack of culture, it is impossible to say except in 
individual cases. But as bearing upon this matter, 
a quotation may be given from a recent writer in 
the Chicago Tribune* who discussed the subject — 
"Is Letter- Writing Becoming Passe?" She says: 

"We have no time for long dissertations, either 
about books or scenery, or our inmost feelings and 
impressions. Letter-writing has ceased to be re- 
garded as a pastime; to the majority it is nothing 
less than a stern duty with little pleasure in it. And 
as a duty it must be performed accurately with no 
superfluities or digressions. We rarely find our- 
selves 'wishing to* write a letter, but we frequently 
'have to' do so, and to get the business over both 
quickly and efficiently we gather up all the facts to 
be communicated and set them down in as few 
words as possible." 

A young business man in a personal letter not 
long ago said : 

"Our vocabularies are certainly limited, and the 
rush of business seems to be in some ways against 
their development. I know that very often in dic- 
tating I substitute a common word for one which 
is more applicable but less likely to be understood 
by the foreign class addressed. The average reader 
won't consult a dictionary, nor puzzle long over 
difficult words." 

♦March 9, 1913. 



TEXTS AND NEEDS 243 

That such conscious or unconscious economy is 
a vital force in the selection of a writing vocabulary 
appears from the tabulation of general List I and 
the first and last ninety-three words of Lists II, III 
and IV, by number of syllables. 





One 


Two 


Three 


Four 


Fire 






syllable 


syllables 


syllables 


syllables 


syllables 


Total 


List I 


152 


30 


4 


. . . 




186 


List II 


93 


72 


18 


2 


"i 


186 


List III 


40 


88 


34 


20 


4 


186 


List IV 


31 


76 


42 


29 


8 


186 



Even a hasty glance at List I will show that it 
contains many words which are commonly mis- 
spelled. All teachers know that most of the trou- 
blesome words in pupils' papers are relatively short, 
so it is clear that the frequency of the short words 
is not due to the simplicity of their spelling, but 
rather to that passion for conservation of energy 
which consciously or unconsciously accompanies all 
effort that is not an end in itself. 

Just how great a role these short, sharp Anglo- 
Saxon words play in written expression can be best 
The words that appreciated from a few compari- 
do the work sonS- Ayres found that nine 

words constituted over one-fourth and forty-three 
words over one-half of the whole of the corre- 
spondence he examined. Reducing his list to a dic- 
tionary basis, we leave the figures practically the 
same. The nine remain unchanged, but the forty- 
three probably become forty-five. For the lists de- 
rived from this investigation, the corresponding fig- 



244 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

ures are nine and forty-two, all monosyllables. 
Since the exact total of the frequencies in List III 
is fifteen thousand, two hundred forty, and that 
for List IV is two thousand, nine hundred forty- 
three, Lists I and II (seven hundred sixty-three 
words) include between ninety and ninety-one per 
cent, of the total words written in ordinary corre- 
spondence. Not only do such generalizations hold 
for a number of persons treated collectively, but 
the same conclusion is fairly warranted for any sin- 
gle individual. As a test a calculation was made of 
the proportions which the nine most frequent words 
spoken of above constituted in the correspondence 
of each of the thirteen correspondents. The theo- 
retical level would be slightly over twenty-five per 
cent, for each person ; the actual per cent, in every 
case fell between twenty-three per cent, and twenty- 
eight and two-tenths per cent., though naturally 
there were marked personal variations in the jire- 
quency of any one word, due to different habits in 
sentence structure and the use of alternative ex- 
pressions. The forty-two words which constituted 
just above fifty per cent, of the total words for all 
correspondents taken collectively constituted be- 
tween forty-six and fifty-five per cent, for all cor- 
respondents taken individually. Lists I and II, 
which theoretically would constitute ninety per cent, 
for any one individual, actually made up from 
eighty- four to ninety-seven per cent, of the total 
words written by each correspondent. 



TEXTS AND NEEDS 245 

An interesting check on the results given in the 
preceding paragraph was gained from an entirely 
different source. The files of the Chicago Tribune 
for June and July, 19 13, were consulted and a total 
of five thousand words was tallied from the com- 
munications appearing on the editorial page under 
the titles of "The Voice of the People" and "The 
Friend of the People." A considerable amount of 
ground was covered by selecting only the first un- 
capitalized word of each line. The same identical 
nine words again made up slightly over a quarter 
of the total, the same forty-two words comprised 
forty-two and five-tenths per cent, as against one- 
half in family correspondence, while Lists I and 
II comprised over seventy-nine per cent, of the to- 
tal, as against ninety per cent, in family correspond- 
ence. It is highly significant that the percentages 
remain so nearly the same. The communications 
printed in the Tribune are scarcely to be termed 
typical of the needs of common people. Unlike 
most family correspondence, they deal with many 
technical matters and are full of legal terminology 
and political discussion. Furthermore, they are 
largely impersonal in their nature, and contain so 
few personal pronouns as to account for the slight 
discrepancy between seventy-nine and ninety per 
cent. 



CHAPTER XIV 

RESUME AND CONCLUSIONS 

RETRACING the ground we have covered, we 
, see that as a result of the study of spelling 
rules with university freshmen and high-school stu- 
dents, it was found that, if we omit one particular 
rule, those who possessed some knowledge of rules 
showed a slight superiority over their fellows in the 
university group who knew no rules, and a slight 
inferiority in the high-school group. Most of the 
persons tested had had thorough instruction in spell- 
ing rules at periods ranging from six weeks to ten 
months previous to the tests, but they had retained 
very little knowledge of them. Much of what they 
had remembered was defective, erroneous, and was 
not applied in their spelling in the tests. Spelling 
rules seem to be for the most part too long and in- 
volved, and there are too many exceptions to every 
rule to make them easily applied by students. One 
short, simple rule to the effect that monosyllables 
ending in ie change the same to y before suffixing 
ing, is doubtless useful, but it applies to only a half 
dozen words. 

The attitude of the students themselves respect- 
246 



CONCLUSIONS 247 

ing the value of rules is skeptical. If taught at all 
the rules probably ought to come very early in the 
child's school life. In later years it is seemingly 
impossible to develop a reflective attitude toward 
what should be mainly a mere sensori-motor or au- 
tomatic process, without producing the disturbed 
inhibitory results that usually follow from such an 
attitude. 

Errors in spelling may be grouped into two 
classes. One is the linguistic lapse or chance error 
that is due to a wandering of the attention from 
the material being written. Lapses are identified 
by the correct spelling of the same word on other 
similar occasions, or by the promptness with which 
the pupil corrects them when he is asked to look 
over what he has written. Lapses should be treated 
by teachers as less serious than other mistakes, and 
they should not draw the teacher's attention from 
the more important points to be observed in the pres- 
entation of the word. Lapses may be guarded 
against by giving pupils opportunity to go over 
their work a second time and correct errors before 
submitting it. The corrections which they make in 
this way should not be penalized so heavily as the 
errors that are due to lack of knowledge. 

The second sort of mistake is the bona fide spell- 
ing error. If misspellings in large numbers are ex- 
amined it will be found that for almost any word 
from one-third to two-thirds of all difficulties are 
occasioned by some special letter or syllable. This 



/ 



248 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

critical point in a word may or may not be one to 
which a rule applies. Its location is best accom- 
plished by the tabulation of many misspellings of 
the word. The most fruitful causes of error are 
( i ) mispronunciation on the part of the teacher and 
the pupil, (2) the drawing of phonetic analogies 
from other words, (3) obscure or elided vowels, 
and (4) double or silent letters. Particular causes 
of error predominate in particular cases, being de- 
termined largely by the type of imagery upon which 
one relies in spelling. The types of letters (ascend- 
ers, descenders and single-space) which give a word 
its distinctive pattern, have much to do with the par- 
ticular direction which error may take in that word. 
For example, in one word a silent letter is very 
likely to be omitted, in another it is almost sure 
not to be omitted. 

A study of the life history of the acquisition of 
some difficult spellings shows the persistent effect of 
spelling errors. Whatever be the reason for its 
occurrence in the first place, the initial error in the 
spelling of a word is apt to persist with great te- 
nacity. This warrants the proposition that children 
should not be allowed to write their spelling lessons 
without careful preliminary study, as they are often 
tempted to do by the prevailing practise of leaving 
their study undirected and requiring a certain mini- 
mum grade for promotion in that subject. So far 
as a theory of progress goes in spelling attainment, 
there are not two stages in the mastery of words, 



CONCLUSIONS 249 

but rather four stages. In the first stage a pupil 
habitually misspells a word in a particular manner ; 
in the second stage his misspellings begin to vary; 
in the third stage occasional correct spelling occurs ; 
while in the fourth stage correct spelling becomes 
habitual. Not all words necessarily pass through 
all these stages. Under proper supervision a word 
will never be permitted to become SO' thoroughly 
mislearned by a pupil as to show the same error 
time after time. Under normal conditions a word 
should pass through only the third and fourth 
stages mentioned above. 

There is probably no such thing as complete 
transfer of the ability developed in column spelling 
over to contextual spelling. In the latter case lapses 
will be more numerous, and words not yet fully 
mastered are more likely to revert to an earlier 
stage of misspelling. The reason for this is the 
dispersion of attention over a larger and more com- 
plex field in contextual than in column writing. As 
long as loss in transfer occurs at all, the only ulti- 
mate test of spelling efficiency must be contextual 
writing, and dictated material will serve the pur- 
pose much less satisfactorily than original composi- 
tion. Isolated spelling may nevertheless be the 
more economical means in the preliminary work of 
mastering words. 

The efficiency of a method of presentation ought 
not to be judged by a test on immediate recall or 
by means of other than regular spelling material. 



250 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

The method of sense presentation and the pupil's 
response thereto play a minor role as compared 
with the frequency of recall. Within two weeks 
after the presentation of a lesson, if there be no in- 
tervening review, the lesson is about as nearly lost 
as in a much longer period. Graphic spelling can 
be taught so as to secure the various advantages of 
oral spelling and avoid its disadvantages. Differ- 
ences in the effectiveness of the two show up more 
plainly for individuals than for a group as a whole. 
As long as the spelling list is in advance of the 
pupil's needs for expression it is improbable that 
the mere teaching of the words in context creates 
a less formal situation, as far as spelling is con- 
cerned, than to teach them in column. Such a state- 
ment is true regardless of the fact that the signifi- 
cance of a word can of course best be grasped only 
when it is given a contextual setting. Comparative 
experimentation is difficult because the "school 
habit" of pupils has prejudiced them in favor of 
column teaching. 

Close study of two pupils indicated that freedom 
in original composition, breadth of vocabulary em- 
ployed, life, variety and naturalness of written ex- 
pression are not the result of spelling ability. Their 
only relation to spelling is seen in the effect of un- 
due spelling consciousness in retarding facility of 
expression. Other minor inferences drawn from 
the experiments in Part I are ( i ) the evil influence 
on spelling of those methods of teaching reading 



CONCLUSIONS 251 

which delay too long the mastery of the alphabet, 
or direct attention too much away from the letters 
of words; (2) the disintegrating effect produced in 
one's own spelling by exposing to one the errors 
of others; (3) the disadvantage of a reflective atti- 
tude toward spelling; (4) the rareness of pure types 
of spellers, such as audiles or visualizers ; ( 5 ) and 
the impropriety of dwelling long on syllabication 
after pronunciation has been well worked out. 

In Part II it was shown that every-day needs are 
not consulted in the framing of spelling lists, but 
that the dogma of formal discipline, ex cathedra 
judgment, and the domination of common schools 
by higher institutions have been the forces at work. 
We seem to have various ideas regarding the ex- 
tent of the vocabulary which a pupil should be re- 
quired to spell. But it is not formal education so 
much as breadth of interest and variety of experi- 
ence which determine the size of one's spelling vo- 
cabulary. Sex needs differ sufficiently so that one 
may raise a question as to differentiation between 
the spelling requirements for the two sexes. There 
seems in actual life to be a seeking after the word 
that is the shortest for the writer and the simplest 
and most easily understood by the one addressed. 
We need to narrow the field of subject-matter in 
spelling and cultivate it more intensively. 

The examination of a vast body of family corre- 
spondence collected from widely separated sources 
shows that less than a dozen words do one-fourth 



252 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

of our work in writing, that about fifty do a half 
of it, and that less than eight hundred do nine- 
tenths of it. 

The words in Lists I and II (pages 1 57-161) 
should be thoroughly mastered by every elementary- 
school pupil. List I with its large number of per- 
sonal and relative pronouns, simple adverbs, prepo- 
sitions, conjunctions, numbers, auxiliary verbs, etc., 
forms the very skeleton of all English expression. 
List II includes a large proportion of the concrete 
nominal, verbal and adjectival terms that form the 
gist of the content of our expression. 

The words in List III come next in importance 
and should receive careful attention. They should 
be drilled on particularly in the three or four higher 
grades, (1) because they are less vital than the 
words, in Lists I and II for those who may have to 
drop out of school early; and (2) because they gen- 
erally come to function in the child's life at a later 
date than those of Lists I and II. If further prun- 
ing is necessary it must begin with List III. Addi- 
tional study is needed with a larger number of per- 
sons to allow other words of possible but so far 
undemonstrated utility to pass out of List IV into 
List III. As such study proceeds, standards for 
eligibility to List III must be raised, the possible 
result being that some words now included therein 
will be dropped and replaced by others. To 
state it differently, Lists I and II should be consid- 
ered as fixing a minimum for the present, and List 



CONCLUSIONS 253 

III as indicating the maximum for elementary 
pupils. 

To this maximum of two thousand, nine hundred 
ninety-three words with their grammatical modi- 
fications there must be added a certain number of 
useful proper names. The character of this list 
will be much more influenced by the local and indi- 
vidual environment than the general lists of words 
will be. Fifty-seven per cent, of the general list 
of five thousand two* hundred words comes in Lists 
I, II and III, but with proper names this per cent, 
drops to twenty-nine. Over a fourth of List II and 
over a half of List III of the proper names falls 
outside of all the spelling-books. Hence one can 
hardly escape the conviction that a child would do 
even better to spend his school-days in learning to 
spell the names of all his schoolmates and neigh- 
bors than in learning the orthography of any con- 
siderable number of geographical and historical 
terms. Every child should know how to spell the 
names of the days of the week, the months of the 
year, Christmas, Thanksgiving, Hallowe'en, Easter 
and other important festal occasions which are not 
of denominational character, the names of a half 
dozen of the more prominent local religious denom- 
inations, the names of half a dozen of the locally 
more important nationalities (not nations), the 
names of his nation, his own state and other states 
in the same section of the country, the half dozen 
chief cities of the nation, and the half dozen largest 



254 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

i 

centers in his own state, a select list of possibly 
forty given names, half for boys and half for girls, 
to include those which seem most common in the 
immediate locality. The limit in proper names 
would be about a hundred. The lists given in the 
preceding chapter are suggestive only of the size 
and scope of an appropriate list, 



THE END 



APPENDIX 



APPENDIX 

WORDS USED SPONTANEOUSLY BY PUPILS 

THE three following lists, totaling eleven hun- 
dred fifty-eight words, are selected from the 
vocabulary which Mr. Homer J. Smith, now of the 
Milwaukee Trade School, found in the examination 
of seventy-five thousand running words of the 
spontaneous compositions of children. Twelve 
thousand five hundred words were taken from each 
grade from the third to the eighth inclusive. The 
children were enrolled in the public schools of Mad- 
ison, Wisconsin, a typical city of twenty-five thou- 
sand inhabitants. List I includes words used by the 
pupils of each grade; List II, all others used by 
at least three of the six grades; List III, those 
used in only two different grades. The principle 
of selection then is not absolute frequency of 
occurrence, but universality of use through the 
grades, a principle similar to that which was 
followed in making up general Lists I, II 
and III of the preceding pages. It will be ob- 
served that the personal, possessive and demonstra- 
tive pronouns, the numerals, ordinals and articles, 
and about thirty of the most common prepositions, 

257 



258 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

conjunctions, verbs and adverbs, besides local prop- 
er names, are omitted. A careful comparison of 
these lists with those given by the authors in the 
preceding pages will reveal marked differences be- 
tween the vocabularies of children and adults, and 
will suggest means of motivation in framing spell- 
ing lists for children. The authors are under obli- 
gation to Mr. Smith for his permission to utilize 
the results of his work. 

LIST I 





272 


WORDS 




about 


boy 


different 


find 


across 


branch 


dinner 


fire 


after 


break 


dish 


fish 


afternoon 


breakfast 


dollar 


floor 


again 


bring 


door 


follow 


almost 


brother 


down 


foot 


along 


build 


dress 


forest 


always 


buy 


drink 


friend 


another 


call 


drop 


front 


any 


camp 


each 


game 


around 


can 


early 


get 


ask 


candy 


eat 


girl 


aunt 


car 


tgg 


give 


away 


care 


end 


glad 


awhile 


carry 


enough 


go 


back 


catch 


even 


good 


bad 


cave 


ever 


grandfather 


ball 


cent 


every 


grandmother 


basket 


chicken 


fall 


great 


because 


child 


family 


grind 


bed 


cold 


far 


grow 


before 


color 


farm 


hand 


begin 


come 


fast 


happy 


big 


country 


father 


hard 


birthday 


cousin 


feel 


hay 


boat 


dance 


few 


head 


born 


dark 


field 


hear 


box 


day 


fill 


help 







APPENDIX 




hide 


much 


right 


time 


hold 


must 


room 


tire 


home 


myself 


run 


together 


hope 


name 


same 


toward 


horse 


near 


say 


town 


house 


never 


school 


train 


hunt 


new- 


think 


tree 


ice 


next 


through 


try 


into 


nice 


seem 


turkey 


jump 


night 


send 


uncle 


just 


noise 


shoe 


until 


keep 


noon 


show 


upon 


kill 


o'clock 


since 


use 


kind 


old 


sing 


vacation 


know 


only 


sister 


very 


lake 


open 


sleep 


visit 


land 


other 


small 


wait 


large 


outside 


snow 


wake 


last 


over 


some 


walk 


late 


own 


something 


want 


laugh 


pack 


soon 


warm 


learn 


pair 


spend 


wash 


leave 


party 


spring 


watch 


like 


pass 


stairs 


water 


line 


people 


stand 


way 


little 


pick 


start 


week 


live 


place 


stay 


well 


long 


play 


stop 


while 


look 


poor 


store 


whole 


lose 


pretty 


story 


will 


lot 


pull 


street 


wind 


lunch 


put 


sun 


window 


make 


quite 


supper 


wish 


man 


rabbit 


table 


with 


many- 


raise 


take 


woman 


master 


reach 


talk 


wood 


meet 


ready 


teach 


work 


mile 


rest 


tell 


write 


morning 


rich 


Thanksgiving 


year 


mother 


ride 


thing 

LIST II 

542 WORDS 


yet 


account 


afterward ago 


air 


act 


against 


ahead 


alarm 


afraid 


age 


aim 


alone 



259 



26o THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



also 


blue 


coffee 


edge 


among 


bluff 


comb 


either 


anger 


board 


comfort 


else 


answer 


boil 


company 


enjoy 


anyone 


book 


cook 


everything 


anything 


both 


cooky 


excite 


anyway 


bottom 


corn 


expect 


appear 


bread 


corner 


experience 


apple 


brick 


cost 


eye 


arise 


bridge 


cotton 


face 


arm 


bright 


count 


factory 


arrive 


brown 


couple 


fail 


asleep 


buggy 


course 


fat 


asylum 


bullet 


cover 


feed 


automobile 


bump 


cow 


fellow 


awake 


bunch 


crack 


fence 


awful 


bundle 


creep 


fight 


ax 


burn 


cross 


final 


baby 


bury 


crow 


fine 


bag 


bush 


crowd 


finish 


bake 


busy 


crumb 


fix 


band 


butter 


cry 


flame 


bandage 


button 


curl 


flower 


bank 


cabin 


cut 


fly 


bark 


cake 


danger 


fond 


barn 


calf 


daughter 


football 


bathe 


candle 


deal 


force 


bear 


cap 


dear 


forget 


beautiful 


capture 


decide 


form 


become 


cat 


decorate 


fox 


behind 


cattle 


deep 


free 


believe 


cellar 


deer 


freeze 


bell 


chair 


depot 


fresh 


belong 


chance 


die 


frighten ** 


below 


cheese 


dip 


fruit 


beside 


cherry 


direct 


fun 


between 


chimney 


dirt 


garden 


bicycle 


chirp 


doctor 


gather 


bid 


choose 


dog 


glass 


bill 


Christmas 


doll 


gold 


bind 


church 


draw 


goodby 


bird 


city 


dream 


goose 


bite 


clean 


drive 


grab 


black 


clerk 


drum 


grade 


bleed 


climb 


dry 


grape 


block 


close 


duck 


grass 


blossom 


cloth 


during 


green 


blow 


coat 


earn 


guess 





APPENDIX 


gun 


lamp 


neighbor 


hair 


lap 


nest 


half 


lead 


nobody 


hall 


leaf 


nose 


handkerchief 


leg 


note 


hang 


lemon 


nothing 


happen 


lesson 


notice 


harness 


let 


now 


hat 


letter 


number 


heat 


light m 


nut 


heavy- 


lightning 


oak 


hello 


limb 


office 


hen 


lion 


often 


here 


listen 


once 


hickory 


load 


orange 


high 


lock 


orchard 


hike 


log 


ought 


hill 


lonesome 


ourselves 


himself 


love 


package 


hit 


low 


pail 


hitch 


lumber 


paper 


hole 


machine 


parent 


honest 


mad 


park 


hospital 


maid 


parlor 


hour 


marry 


part 


humble 


marsh 


pasture 


hunger 


matter 


pay 


hungry 


may 


peek 


hurry 


meal 


pencil 


hurt 


mean 


person 


hut 


meat 


pet 


idle 


merry 


piano 


imagine 


middle 


picture 


inch 


milk 


pie 


inside 


mill 


piece 


instead 


mind 


pity 


intend 


minute 


plan 


invite 


miss 


plant 


iron 


model 


please 


job 


money 


pocket 


journey 


month 


point 


kiss 


mountain 


police 


kitchen 


mouse 


pony 


knife 


mouth 


pop 


knock 


move 


popcorn 


ladder 


mud 


porch 


lady 


need 


post 


lagoon 


negro 


potato 



261 



pound 

pour 

present 

price 

pumpkin 

pup 

purse 

push 

quarrel 

quarter 

quick 

quiet 

race 

rag 

rain 

rake 

rather 

read 

real 

receive 

red 

remember 

reply 

result 

return 

ribbon 

rifle 

ring 

river 

road 

roar 

robin 

rock 

roll 

rope 

rough 

round 

row 

rug 

rush 

sack 

sad 

safe 

sail 

Santa Claus 

satisfy 

sauce 

save 



262 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



schoolhouse 


soil 


supply 


under 


scratch 


soldier 


suppose 


unless 


see 


somebody 


sure 


vase 


seek 


sometime 


surprise 


village 


sell 


son 


sweat 


voice 


serve 


sorrow 


sweep 


wade 


settle 


sorry- 


swim 


wagon 


several 


sound 


tag 


wall 


sew 


speak 


tail 


war 


shake 


sport 


tall 


wave 


shall 


spot 


team 


wear 


sheep 


spy 


tear 


weep 


shell 


squirrel 


telephone 


wet 


shine 


star 


tend 


wheel 


ship 


station 


tent 


which 


shoat 


steal 


terrible 


whip 


shock 


steep 


thank 


whistle 


shop 


step 


themselves 


white 


shore 


stick 


thick 


why 


short 


stiff 


though 


wide 


shout 


still 


thread 


widow 


sick 


stocking 


throw 


wife 


side 


stone 


tie 


wing 


sight 


storm 


tip 


winter 


silk 


stove 


today 


without 


sink 


straight 


toe 


wonder 


size 


straw 


tomorrow 


word 


skate 


stream 


tonight 


world 


skin 


strike 


top 


worm 


sled 


string 


toy 


worth 


sleigh 


strong 


track 


wrap 


slide 


stub 


tramp 


yard 


slip 


stumble 


trip 


yellow 


slow 


such 


trouble 


yes 


smoke 


sudden 


turn 


yesterday 


snake 


suit 


umbrella 


young 


soak 


summer 








LIST III 






344 


WORDS 




above 


aflame 


arrest 


attic 


absent 


agree 


arrow 


baggage 


accident 


already 


ash (es) 


bale 


acorn 


angleworm 


astonish 


balloon 


advance 


animal 


attack 


banana 


adventure 


army 


attend 


barrel 





APPENDIX 




baseball 


cranberry 


fasten 


interest 


bass 


crane 


fear 


jacket 


bat 


crash 


feast 


jail 


battle 


crawl 


feather 


jewel 


bay- 


creek 


fever 


joy 


beam 


cripple 


fierce 


judge 


beat 


cruel 


fit 


keg 


beg 


cup 


flag 


key 


berry 


cupboard 


flint 


kick 


blackboard 


cutter 


flock 


king 


blanket 


damage 


flood 


kite 


bloom 


dandelion 


flour 


kitten 


blot 


darling 


flow 


knapsack 


bold 


dash 


folk 


knee 


bond 


delay 


food 


lack 


bonfire 


delight 


former 


lad 


bother 


deliver 


fort 


landlord 


breast 


desk 


forth 


lawn 


bridle 


destroy 


forward 


lone 


brook 


diamond 


freight 


loud 


broom 


dig 


fright 


mail 


bruise 


disappear 


furnace 


manage 


bug 


discover 


furniture 


manual 


burglar 


disgust 


gin 


march 


canvass 


dismiss 


graze 


market 


card 


distance 


group 


match 


carpet 


dive 


growl 


mate 


cart 


divide 


guard 


maybe 


case 


dodge 


gust 


melt 


cause 


dozen 


hale 


mend 


cement 


drag 


hammer 


mince 


change 


dragon 


hardship 


mistress 


chase 


drown 


hatch 


mix 


chop 


dust 


hatchet 


mound 


circle 


eagle 


haul 


muskrat 


class 


earth 


hawk 


narrow 


clear 


easy 


heart 


nature 


clothe 


educate 


heel 


naughty 


club 


enemy 


herd 


necktie 


coal 


engine 


herself 


nickel 


coast 


enter 


hook 


noble 


collect 


entertain 


horn 


none 


colt 


everybody 


hose 


north 


continue 


examine 


hug 


oat 


cord 


except 


ill 


occasion 


cottage 


explore 


Indian 


offer 


cozy 


fact 


industry 


onion 


cracker 


fair 


insect 


operate 



263 



264 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 



opposite 


raid 


society 


thunder 


order 


raisin 


soft 


ticket 


outdoor 


ranch 


song 


tiny 


paint 


rat 


speed 


tog 


pan 


rattle 


splendid 


touch 


pane 


remark 


spoil 


trace 


paralyze 


ripe 


spread 


trap 


particular 


roof 


square 


treasure 


peanut 


root 


stack 


trim 


peep 


saddle 


stain 


trousers 


pen 


scarce 


stalk 


trunk 


picnic 


scare 


starch 


tunnel 


pigeon 


screen 


starve 


unload 


pile 


screw 


stock 


usual 


pin 


scorch 


strange 


value 


pine 


seat 


study 


verse 


pink 


seed 


stuff > 


violet 


playmate 


select 


sunshine 


weak 


plenty 


sense 


surrender 


weed 


plow 


shade 


surround 


wheat 


poison 


shape 


swallow 


where 


pond 


shoulder 


sweater 


win 


position 


shovel 


swing 


wipe 


praise 


shut 


sword 


wire 


press 


sidewalk 


tablet 


wise 


prince 


sign 


tack 


witch 


prison 


silver 


taste 


wither 


probable 


sit 


tease 


within 


puff 


slate 


theater 


wolf 


pump 


smell 


there 


worry 


punish 


smooth 


thimble 


wound 


purchase 


smother 


throat 


yell 



REFERENCE FOR FURTHER 
READING 



- 



REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING 

THE more important books and articles bear- 
ing directly on the problems of spelling are 
listed below. It has not been thought desirable to 
include in this bibliography the great volume of 
controversial literature called out by the agitation 
for "simplified spelling." The general literature 
dealing with the memory has not been included to 
any extent, since much of it can not be shown to 
have any bearing on spelling problems. The brief 
annotations may possibly be helpful to busy readers. 

Abbott, Edwina E. — On the Analysis of the Memory 
Consciousness in Orthography. Psychological 
Review, Monograph Supplements, Vol. XI, 
No. i, pp. 127-158. 

Continued experiments with four trained 
subjects. 
Ayres, Leonard P. — The Spelling Vocabularies of 
Personal and Business Letters, Russell Sage 
Foundation, February, 191 3. 14 pp. 

The first piece of work on the spelling vo- 
cabularies of common people. 
Bailey, William B.- — Some College Spelling. Inde- 
pendent, 67: 345-347. 

Errors culled from about five hundred thou- 
267 



268 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

sand running words of composition by college 
students. Spelling ability fairly well corre- 
lated with general ability. 

Baird, J. W. — The Psychology of Spelling. Bulle- 
tin Illinois Association of Teachers of Eng- 
lish, Vol. IV, No. 8. 

Holds motor imagery most important for 
most pupils, as indicated by test of seven hun- 
dred children. 

Bawden, H. Heath. — A Study of Lapses. Psycho- 
logical Review, Monograph Supplements, Vol. 
Ill, No. 4. 

Burnham, Wm. H. — The Hygiene and Psychology 
of Spelling. Pedagogical Seminary, 13 : 474- 

501. 

Summary of investigation of effect of dif- 
ferent methods of presentation and other stud- 
ies to date. 
Carmen, E. Kate. — The Cause of Chronic Bad 
Spelling. Journal of Pedagogy,^ 13: 86-91. 

Bad spelling is attributed largely to lack of 
habit or ability to observe. 
Chancellor, William Estabrook. — Spelling. Jour- 
nal of Education, 71 : 488, 517, 545, 573, 607. 

Principally important for Mr. Chancellor's 
list of the one thousand most commonly used 
words. 
Charters, W. W.—A Spelling "Hospital" in the 
High School. School Review, 18: 192-195. 

An account of the treatment of poor spellers 



REFERENCES 269 

in the high school of the University of Mis- 
souri. 
Cornman, Oliver P. — Spelling in the Elementary 
School. Ginn & Co., 1902, 98 pp. 

The chief feature of this monograph is the 
information it gives regarding the famous 
Philadelphia experiment in the incidental 
teaching of spelling. 
Eldridge, R. C. — Six Thousand Common English 
Words. Niagara Falls, N. Y., n. d. 64 pp. 

A study of the vocabulary of contemporary 
journalism. 
Foster, William T. — The Spelling of College Stu- 
dents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 2 : 
211-215. 

Classification and discussion of two thou- 
sand errors made by college students. 
Gregory, B. C. — The Rationale of Spelling. School 
and Home Education, 2j: 84-92, 123-129. 

Experimental study of kinds and causes 
of error. Plea for more oral spelling. 
Henmon, V. A. C. — The Relation Between Mode 
of Presentation and Retention. Psychological 
Review, 19: 79-96. 
Hollister, H. A. — The Passing of the Spelling -Bo ok. 
School and Home Education, 30: 64-68, 97- 
101. 

(1) A history of the rise and decline of the 
spelling-book. 



270 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

(2 J A description of an experiment in inci- 
dental teaching. 
Kline, Linus W. — A Study in the Psychology of 
Spelling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 
3: 381-406. 

A study of the relation of types of imagery 
to effective presentation in spelling. 
Kratz, H. E. — Studies and Observations in the 
Schoolroom. Educational Publishing Com- 
pany, 1907. See Chapter XI. 

Test of different methods of sense presenta- 
tion on several hundred children. Conclusion 
highly favorable to visual-auditory-articula- 
tory method. 
Pearson, Henry C. — The Scientific Study of the 
Teaching of Spelling. Journal of Educational 
Psychology, 2 : 241-252. 

Study of simultaneous versus separate treat- 
ment of homonyms. 
Rice, J. M. — The Futility of the Spelling Grind. 
Forum, 23: 163-172, 409-419. 

Results of test administered to thirty-three 
thousand children in over twenty cities of the 
country. Conclusions negative as to efficacy 
of time and methods. Teacher's personality 
the crux. Work should be graded and com- 
mon words stressed. 
Sandwick, Richard L. — Teaching Old-fashioned 
Spelling in an Up-to-date Way. Bulletin llli- 



REFERENCES 271 

nois Association of Teachers of English, Vol. 
IV, No. 8. 

Scott, Frank W. — A Spelling Lesson. Bulletin Illi- 
nois Association of Teachers of English, Vol. 
Ill, No. 8. 

Shaw, Esther E. — Is Spelling a Failure ? Educa- 
tional Review, 40: 170-182. 

Smiley, W. S. — A Comparative Study of the Re- 
sults Obtained in Instruction in the "Single 
Teacher" Rural Schools and the Graded Town 
Schools. Elementary School Teacher, 1 1 : 
316-322. 

Spindler, F. N. — Memory Types in Spelling. Edu- 
cation, 28: 1 75-1 81. 

Suzzallo, Henry — The Teaching of Spelling.. 
Teachers' College Record, Vol. XII, No. 5. 
Treatment of tendencies in method at the 
present time. Probably most complete state- 
ment of problems up for solution. 

Suzzallo, Henry, and Pearson, Henry Carr — Com- 
parative Experimental Teaching in Spelling. 
Teachers' College Record, Vol. XIII, No. 1. 
Description of comparative experiments in 
class-directed study and independent study. 
Resume of preceding references (Suzzallo 
and Pearson). 

Turner, E. A. — Rule vs. Drill in Teaching Spell- 
ing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3: 
460-461. 



272 THE CHILD AND HIS SPELLING 

Wallin, J. E. Wallace — Has the Drill Become Ob- 
solescent? Journal of Educational Psychology, 
i : 200-213. 

A plea for spelling drill of a specific sort. 
Description of the Cleveland (Ohio) plan. 

Wallin, J. E. Wallace — Spelling Efficiency in Re- 
lation to Age, Grade and Sex, and the Ques- 
tion of Transfer, Warwick & York, 191 1. 
86 pp. 

Whipple, Guy Montrose — The Spelling of Univer- 
sity Students. Journal of Educational Psy- 
chology, 1: 31-33. 

Whipple, Guy Montrose— Relative Efficiency of 
Phonetic Alphabets. Warwick & York, 191 1. 

52 Pp. 

"An experimental investigation of the com- 
parative merits of the Webster Key Alphabet 
and the proposed Key Alphabet submitted to 
the National Education Association." 
Wyckoff, Adelaide E. — Constitutional Bad Spellers. 
Pedagogical Seminary, 2: 448-451. 

Effort at analysis by psychological tests of 
traits of a small group of bad spellers. 
Journal of Education, 71 : 153, 271, 383, 410, gives 
standard lists of words for first four grades 
in Milwaukee schools. Plan similar to that 
of Cleveland. 



INDEX 




INDEX 



Accessory, life history of correct spelling of, 69. 

ANALOGY, in spelling, 39-41. 

Ancient, list showing misspellings of, 25. 

Argument, list showing misspellings of, 28. 

ATTENTION: dispersion of a cause of errors, 87, 88; to 
technique in composition, 109, 110. 

AUDITORY, types in spelling, 116, 117. 

AUTOMATIC: execution of the literal elements, 89; con- 
trol of the larger units, 90, 91. 

AUTOMATISM, relative, 88, 89. 

Awful, list showing misspellings of, 28. 

AYRES', study of spelling lists, 136, 137, 156-174, 234, 235. 

Benefited, list showing misspellings of, 29. 

Betrayal, list showing misspellings of, 29. 

BOOKS, as affecting the need of teaching spelling, 139, 140. 

CAUSES: of errors in spelling, 23-47; need of determining 
causes, 23-25. 

CHANCELLOR, study of spelling lists, 135, 136, 156-174. 

CHICAGO FIRE, table showing result of spelling test on 
words relating to, 77, 78. 

CHICAGO TRIBUNE: examination of communications 
printed in, 245; quotation from, 242. 

CHILDREN, words used in compositions by, 255-262. 

COLUMN : versus contextual spelling, 74-93 ; material and 
subjects of test, 74; difficulties of plan, 74, 75; table 
showing result of dictation of extract from Robinson 
Crusoe, 76, 77; table showing spellings of words taken 
from account of the Chicago fire, 77, 78; table summa- 
rizing results of tests, 81; two methods of measuring 
loss by transfer, 81, 82; the conventional conclusion, 82; 
genuine dynamic spelling, 82; table showing results of 
original composition test, 83-86; loss in efficiency by 
transfer, 81, 82, 86, 87; frequency of errors, 81, 82, 86, 
87 ; dispersion of attention a cause of error, 87, 88 ; rela- 
tive automatism, 88, 89; automatic execution of the 
literal elements, 89; oral spelling first, 89, 90; auto- 
matic control of larger units, 90, 91 ; universality of the 

275 



276 INDEX 

COLUMN— Continued 

principle, 91; lack of transfer unavoidable, 91; column 
spelling tests given to high-school freshmen, 92; use 
of words in contextual relation proof of spelling effi- 
ciency, 93. 

COMMON PEOPLE, needs of in spelling, 137-139. 

COMPOSITION: and spelling efficiency, 104-111; words 
used in composition by children, 255-262. See Spell- 
ing Efficiency and Composition. 

CONTEXTUAL SPELLING. See Column Versus Con- 
textual Spelling. 

CORRECTION, method of in experiments, 50, 51. 

CORRESPONDENTS, relation of spelling vocabulary of to 
word lists in spelling-books, 226-229. 

CRITICAL POINT : in a word, 34, 35 ; rules often do not 
relate to critical points, 35-37; directing attention to 
the critical point in any word, 46, 47. 

CURTAILMENT OF VOCABULARY, reasons for opposi- 
tion to, 132-134. 

DATA : sources and character of, 144-155 ; account of letter- 
writers, 145-147; description of spelling-books, 147-149; 
no consideration of test lists, 149, 150; rules of proce- 
dure, 150-154; the arrangement of words, 154, 155; 
Standard Dictionary used in determining eligibility of 
words, 153. 

DECLINING IMPORTANCE, of spelling, 139-142. 

Dismayed, list showing misspellings of, 28, 29. 

DOUBLING LETTERS, as a source of error, 42, 43. 

DYNAMIC SPELLING, genuine, 82. 

Encouragement, list showing misspellings of, 27. 

ERRORS: sources and causes of, 23-47; need of determin- 
ing causes, 23-25; compiling lists of misspelled words, 
24; sources of error not apparent, 24, 25; table show- 
ing varieties of misspelling of ancient, 25; foreign, 26; 
piercing, 26; sieve, 26, 27; nervous, 27; encouragement, 
27 ; awful, 28 ; argument, 28 ; dismayed, 28, 29 ; betrayal, 
29; benefited, 29; prevalence of chance errors, 30; slips 
of the pen, 30, 31 ; treatment of lapses, 32-34; teachers 
often fail to discriminate lapses from genuine error, 
33; critical point in a word, 34, 35; rules often do not 
relate to critical points, 35-37; analogy in spelling, 39- 
41; obscure or elided vowels, 41, 42; doubling letters as 
a source of error. 42, 43 ; effect of types of rules on 
errors, 43-45; syllabication as a means of avoiding 
error, 45, 46; means of directing attention to the criti- 



INDEX 277 

ERRORS— Continued 

cal point in any word, 46, 47; methods of correction of 
in test, 50, 51 ; persistence of certain errors, 54, 55 ; 
persistence of initial error, 64; why errors persist, 65- 
67; errors eliminated one at a time, 70; two methods of 
measuring loss by transfer, 81, 82; loss in efficiency by 
■transfer, 81, 82, 86, 87; frequency of errors, 81, 82, 86, 
87; dispersion as a cause of, 87, 88; showing a pupil his 
errors, 102, 103; fear of making errors, 114; seeing 
and hearing mistakes, 115; dominant type of error, 118. 

FAMILY LETTERS: as affording accurate data for spell- 
ing lists, 138, 139; data regarding authors of family 
letters, 144-147; word lists derived from, 156-224. 

Foreign, list showing misspellings of, 26. 

FOREIGN TERMS, used in correspondence, 224. 

GRAPHIC, versus oral spelling, 101. 

HIGH-SCHOOL STUDENTS: investigation in respect to 
value of spelling rules used by, 10, 11; experience and 
training of students tested, 15; column spelling tests 
given to freshmen, 92; "spelling hospital," 92. 

IDEAS, organization of in composition, 108. 

IMMEDIATE, versus ultimate values in spelling, 129, 130. 

IMPROVEMENT: table showing capacity for improve- 
ment, 52; ways in which improvement occurred, 52, 53. 

INFREQUENT WORDS, spelling of, 130, 131, 133. 

INITIAL MISSPELLING: persistence of, 64; an apparent 
exception to the rule, 64. 

Intelligible, life history of correct spelling of, 68. 

INVESTIGATION, purpose of present, 5-8. 

LAPSES: treatment of, 32-34; teachers fail to discriminate 
lapses from genuine error, 33. 

LIFE HISTORY: of certain spellings, 48-73; words as- 
signed in experiments, 48, 49; method of presentation 
and study, 49; methods of recitation, 50; methods of 
correction, 50, 51 ; table indicating capacity for im- 
provement shown in experiments, 52; ways in which 
improvement occurred, 52, 53; power of learning and 
retaining new words, 53; persistence of certain mis- 
takes, 54, 55 ; table showing history of spellings through 
tests, 56-62; table showing tenacity of certain misspell- 
ings, 63; persistence of the initial error in spelling, 64; 
an apparent exception to the rule, 64; why errors per- 



278 INDEX 

LIFE HISTORY— Continued 

sist, 65, 67; motor habits in spelling, 66; preparation 
of the spelling lesson, 66-67; life history of machinist> 
67, 68 ; malignity, 68 ; intelligible, 68 ; accessory, 69 ; os- 
tensible, 69; errors eliminated one at a time, 70; four 
stages in word mastery, 71; when is a word mastered? 
72; mastery more complete in one "modality" than an- 
other, 72. 

Machinist, life history of correct spelling of, 67, 68. 

MAGAZINES, as affecting the need of teaching spelling, 140. 

Malignity, life history of correct spelling of, 68. 

MASTERY: of a word, 71; when is a word mastered? 72; 
mastery more complete in one "modality" than an- 
other, 72. 

MEN: sex differences in spelling vocabularies, 235; words 
dominant in the letters of, 239, 240. 

METHODS: of determining the written vocabulary, 135- 
143; of directing attention to the critical point in any 
word, 46, 47; of presentation and study in experiment, 
49; methods of recitation, 50; methods of correction, 
50, 51; of presentation, 94-103. 

"MODALITY," mastery of a word more complete in one 
"modality" than in another, 72. 

MOTOR HABITS, in spelling, 66. 

Nervous, list showing misspellings of, 27. 

NEWSPAPERS : investigation of lists of words used in, 
135 ; as affecting the need of teaching spelling, 139, 140. 
NEW WORDS, pupil's ability to learn and retain, 53. 

ORAL, versus graphic spelling, 101. 

Ostensible, life history of correct spelling of, 69. 

Piercing, list showing misspellings of, 26. 

POST-CARD, as influencing the need of teaching spelling, 
141, 142. 

PREPARATION, of the spelling lesson, 66, 67. 

PRESENTATION: methods of, 94-103; variance of opin- 
ions concerning, 94, 95 ; plan of investigation of, 95 ; 
four types of, 96; table showing results of test in two 
types of, 97; comparison of methods of, 98-100; oral 
versus graphic, 101 ; advantages of each method of, 101 ; 
showing a pupil his error, 102, 103. 

PRESENT-DAY SPELLING: wide-spread criticism of the 
teaching of, 1-3 ; various explanations offered for de- 



INDEX 279 

PRESENT-DAY SPELLING— Continued 

ficiency in, 1; the layman's view of method of teach- 
ing, 2; conflicting opinions respecting methods and re- 
sults, 3, 4; the layman's remedy, 3. 

FROPER NAMES: in correspondence, 219-223; in spelling 
needs, 253. 

PURE TYPES, never found as regards mode of spelling, 117. 

READING, in relation to learning to spell, 112-114. 

REASONING, as involved in spelling, 115. 

RECITATION, method of in experiments, 50. 

ROBINSON CRUSOE, table showing result of dictation 
from, 76, 77. 

RULES FOR SPELLING: value of, 10-22; lack of agree- 
ment regarding use of in modern texts, 10, 11; examples 
of rules found in spelling texts, 10; investigations of 
university and high-school students in respect to value 
of rules, 10, 11; word list used to test value of spelling 
rules, 11-13; experience and training of students tested, 
13, 14; three classes of people in respect to the use of 
rules, 16; conscious versus unconscious use of a rule, 
16, 17; table showing observance of rules, 17; function 
of ie-ei rule, 18; value of rule on final e, 18, 19; value of 
rule on final y, 19; value of rule for final ie, 20; stu- 
dents' attitude toward rules, 21, 22; effects of types of 
rules on errors, 43-45. 

SCOPE, of present investigation, 5-7. 

Sieve, list showing misspellings of, 26, 27. 

SPECIAL FACTORS: in spelling, 112-121; learning to read 
in relation to learning to spell, 112-114; fear of making 
errors, 114; seeing and hearing mistakes, 115; reason- 
ing out a spelling, 115; auditory and visual types, 116; 
no pure types, 117; dominant type of error, 118; sylla- 
bication as an aid, 118, 119; traits that make good spell- 
ers, 119-121. 

SPELLING: present-day interest in, 1, 2; differences of 
opinion regarding the teaching of, 2; the layman's rem- 
edy for apparent deficiency in, 3; hard and uninterest- 
ing for pupils, 4; spelling vocabulary, 7-9. See Pres- 
ent-Day Spelling; Vocabulary; Rules for Spelling; 
Errors — Sources and Causes of; Life History of 
Spelling ; Methods of Presentation ; Spelling Needs ; 
Written Vocabulary. 

SPELLING ABILITY: See Spelling; Spelling Needs; 
Life History of Spellings; Written Vocabulary. 

SPELLING CONSCIENCE, 108, 109. 



28o INDEX 



SPELLING EFFICIENCY: and composition, 104-111; plan 
of tests, 104; the data gathered, 105-108; table showing 
amount of composition versus breadth of vocabulary, 
106; table showing amount of composition versus 
breadth of vocabulary in relation to lapses and mis- 
spellings, 107; organization of ideas, 108; spelling con- 
science, 108, 109; attention to technique, 109, 110; ra- 
pidity of writing, 110; summary of results, 110, 111. 

"SPELLING HOSPITAL," for defective spellers in the high 
school, 92. 

SPELLING NEEDS: popular views of, 125-134; present 
theory and practise, 125-127; number of words a child 
should be able to spell when he finishes the eighth 
grade, 126, 127; purpose of spelling, 127-129; the writ- 
ing vocabulary in relation to the oral and reading vo- 
cabulary, 128, 129; immediate versus ultimate values in 
spelling, 129, 130 ; spelling of infrequent words, 130, 131, 
133; pruning word lists, 131, 132; reasons for opposition 
to curtailment of vocabulary, 132-134. 

SPELLING VOCABULARY: 7-9 ; # methods of determining, 
135-143; investigation of lists in newspapers, 135; Chan- 
cellor's work, 135, 136; Ayres' study of spelling vocab- 
ularies, 136, 137; the needs of the "common people," 
137-139; family letters as affording accurate data, 138, 
139; declining importance of spelling vocabulary, 139- 
142; decline due to newspapers, magazines and books, 
139, 140; influence of telegraph and telephone, 140; in- 
fluence of increase in travel, 140; women as letter- 
writers, 141 ; spelling as an art for the stenographer, 
141; the influence of the post-card, 141, 142; no dan- 
ger of hampering the child, 142, 143 ; vocabularies of 
spelling-books, 225, 226; individual writing vocabularies, 
230-234; of thirteen persons as revealed by successive 
thousands of running words of correspondence, 234, 
235 ; sex differences in spelling vocabulary, 235 ; words 
dominant in letters of women, 236, 237; words dom- 
inant in letters of men, 239, 240; the words that do 
the work, 243-245. 

STANDARD DICTIONARY, used in determining eligibility 
of words, 153. 

STENOGRAPHER, as particularly in need of spelling, 141. 

SYLLABICATION: as a means of avoiding error, 45, 46; 
as an aid in spelling, 118, 119. 

TABLES: showing observance of rules, 17; showing varie- 
ties of misspelling of ancient, 25; foreign, 26; piercing, 
26 ; sieve, 26, 27 ; nervous, 27 ; encouragement, 27 ; awful, 
28; argument, 28; dismayed, 28, 29; betrayal, 29; bene- 



INDEX 281 



TABLES— Continued 

fitcd, 29; indicating capacity for improvement shown 
in experiment, 52; showing history of spellings through 
tests, 56-62; showing tenacity of certain misspellings, 
63; showing result of dictation of extract from Robin- 
son Crusoe, 76, 77; showing spellings of words taken 
from account of Chicago fire, 77, 78; summarizing re- 
sults of tests, 81 ; showing results of original composi- 
tion test, 83-86; showing two types of presentation, 97. 

TECHNIQUE, attention to in composition, 109, 110. 

TELEGRAPH, as affecting the need of teaching spelling, 140. 

TELEPHONE, as influencing the need of teaching spelling, 
140. 

TEXTS: lack of agreement regarding use of rules in, 10, 11; 
examples of rules found in spelling texts, 10; data re- 
garding, 147-149; and spelling needs, 225-245; vocabu- 
laries in spelling-books, 225, 226; relation of vocabu- 
laries of spelling-books and of correspondents, 226-229; 
limitations of any spelling-book, 229, 230; words found 
in none of the spelling-books, 229; individual writing 
vocabularies, 230-234; vocabularies of thirteen persons 
as revealed by successive thousands of running words 
of correspondence, 232; vocabularies in family and other 
correspondence, 234, 235 ; sex differences in spelling vo- 
cabulary, 235 ; list showing words dominant in letters 
of women, 236-239; words dominant in letters of men, 
239, 240; summary of sex interest, 240, 241; relation of 
time economy to spelling needs, 241-243 ; the words that 
do the work, 243-245. See Spelling Needs. 

TIME ECONOMY, relation of to spelling needs, 241-243. 

TRAITS, that make good spellers, 119-121. 

TRAVEL, increase of as influencing need of teaching spell- 
ing, 140. 

UNIVERSITY STUDENTS: investigation of regarding 
value of spelling rules, 10, 11; experience and training 
of students tested, 13, 14. 

VISUAL, and auditory types, 116, 117. 
VOWELS, obscure or elided, 41, 42. 

WOMEN : as performing most of the work in family letter- 
writing, 141 ; sex differences in spelling vocabulary, 235 
words dominant in letters of women, 236, 237. 

WORD LISTS: used to test value of spelling rules, 11-13 
investigations of lists in newspapers, 135 ; pruning word 
lists, 131, 132; derived from correspondence, 156-224 
method of classifying, 156, 157; words used by all cor- 



282 INDEX 



WORD LISTS— Continued 

respondents, 157-161 ; words used by a majority of cor- 
respondents, 161-173; words used by less than a major- 
ity of the correspondents, 173-219; character of words 
used by one writer only, 219; proper names in the cor- 
respondence, 219-223; tabulation of foreign terms, 224; 
vocabularies of thirteen persons as revealed by succes- 
sive thousands running words of correspondence, 232; 
words dominant in letters of women, 236-239; words 
dominant in letters of men, 239, 240; words used in 
compositions of children, 255-262. 

WRITTEN VOCABULARY, methods of determining, 135- 
143. See Spelling Vocabulary. 




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